LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


MANAGEMENT 

AND  METHODS 


-FOR- 


RURAL   AND    VILLAGE   TEACHERS 


THOMAS  E.  SANDERS 


THE    CLAUDE   J.    BELL    COMPANY 

NASHVILLE        ::       ::        TENNESSEE 


s 


COPYRIGHTED  1905 

BY 

THOMAS   E.   SANDERS 


CWN  teaching,  as  in  0ili;er 
icings,  100k  npt  and 
stars  guide  g0n;  I00k 
and 


PREFACE 

Teachers  in  rural  and  village  schools  have 
problems  of  their  own.  They  often  have  all 
grades  to  teach,  and  many  times  have  a  crowded 
room  with  few  facilities  for  teaching.  Most 
books  on  School  Management  and  on  Methods 
of  Teaching  have  been  written  from  the  view- 
point of  the  model  school  or  the  city  system, 
and  contain  much  that  is  impractical  in  the 
rural  or  the  village  school  where  ideal  conditions 
do  not  exist.  " Management  and  Methods" 
was  written  to  help  rural  and  village  teachers. 
It  embraces  nine  years'  experience  in  these 
schools,  corrected  and  modified  by  several  years 
of  deeper  study  and  broader  experience. 

It  will,  we  believe,  be  found  at  all  times 
pleading  for  good  common  sense  in  the  school- 
room, and  for  work  and  study  and  planning  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  suggestions  will 
be  found  helpful,  we  trust,  to  teachers,  both 
old  and  young ;  and  if  they  are,  the  author  will 
be  satisfied. 


CONTENTS 


MANAGEMENT 


I. 

What  Constitutes  a  Preparation    for   Teaching 

9 

II. 

Some  Qualities  of  a  Good  Teacher 

14 

III. 

The  Teacher  in  His  Relation  to  the  Community 

20 

IV. 

The  First  Day     - 

31 

V. 

The  Program  - 

36 

VI. 

Grading  a  Rural  School 

39 

VII. 

The  Course  of  Study 

45. 

VIII. 

The  Assignment  of  the  Lesson     - 

52 

IX. 

The  Recitation 

55 

X. 

Examinations 

60 

XI. 

Reports  - 

65 

XII. 

Right  Conditions  for  Teaching 

70 

XIII. 

Governing  Power  in  the  Teacher 

80 

XIV. 

School  Regulations 

85 

XV. 

School  Punishment  - 

89 

XVI. 

Movement  of  Classes   - 

96 

XVII. 

Basic  Principles  of  Teaching    - 

102 

METHODS 

XVIII. 

Reading 

121 

XIX. 

Writing  - 

135 

XX. 

Spelling 

138 

XXI. 

Arithmetic 

152 

XXII. 

Geography  - 

174 

VI 


MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 


XXIII.  Language  and  Composition 

XXIV.  Grammar 
XXV.  Literature     - 

XXVI.  History   - 

XXVII.,  Civil  Government 

XXVIII.  Physiology 

XXIX.  Scientific  Temperance  - 

XXX.  Nature  Study  - 


187 
206 
217 
233 
268 
280 
287 
306 


MANAGEMENT 


I.    WHAT     CONSTITUTES     A     PREPARATION 
FOR   TEACHING? 

THE;  old  thought  was  that  any  one  could  teach  school. 
We  sometimes  fear  that  a  little  of  that  sentiment  still 
remains.  Schools  are  not  always  allotted  according  to 
merit.  In  many  places  all  applicants  holding  a  license 
are  considered  equally  meritorious.  Fortunate  indeed, 
then,  is  the  community  if  they  have  a  level-headed,  dis- 
criminating county  superintendent  or  examiner  who  has 
plenty  of  courage.  He  should  discriminate.  The  sys- 
tem of  written  examination  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  yet 
one  can  judge  as  well  of  a  teacher's  qualifications  and 
ability  as  a  teacher,  from  examining  a  list  of  questions 
he  has  prepared  for  the  examination  of  his  own  pupils, 
as  from  examining  a  list  of  answers  he  has  prepared  for 
a  series  of  questions. 

But  what  constitutes  a  preparation  for  teaching? 

i.  A  Knowledge  of  the  Subject  Taught. —  This  is 
the  first  qualification.  We  cannot  expect  good  results 
from  blind  teaching.  There  is  a  margin  between  a  teach- 
er's teaching  limit  and  his  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
No  teacher  can  lead  a  class  successfully  up  to  his  own 
mental  horizon  in  a  subject.  It  may  be  an  excellent 
thing  for  the  teacher  to  have  a  class  almost  as  strong  as 
he  is  in  a  subject,  but  it  is  often  hard  on  the  class.  His 
instruction  will  be  fragmentary.  It  will  have  a  piece-meal 
appearance,  and  be  given  in  broken  doses. 

The  teacher  should  be  at  least  four  years  in  advance 
9 


10  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

of  his  class.  In  the  common  school,  he  should  have 
at  least  a  high  school  education,  and  the  high  school 
teacher  should  have  at  least  a  college  education. 

This  will  give  margin  enough  to  teach  successfully 
and  give  correct  perspective.  The  teacher  who  has  never 
thought  beyond  his  course  of  study  cannot  give  the  parts 
of  subjects  their  relative  importance.  When  a  boy  in 
the  district  school,  we  omitted  the  whole  subject  of  con- 
jugation of  the  verb.  Our  teacher  said  it  "  did  not 
amount  to  anything/'  Later  in  the  study  of  a  foreign 
language  I  found  that  it  did  amount  to  much,  and  my 
teacher  —  an  excellent  man  —  would  have  found  the 
same  had  his  horizon  been  broader.  The  broader  the 
mental  horizon  of  the  teacher,  provided  he  has  good  com- 
mon sense,  the  better  the  school  he  will  teach. 

When  I  place  knowledge  of  the  subject  taught  as  the 
first  qualification  of  the  teacher,  I  mean  not  only  the 
student's  knowledge,  but  the  teacher's  knowledge  also. 
The  last  is  broader  and  deeper.  The  teacher  must  be 
familiar  with  the  principles  of  the  subject  and  the  logical 
relations  of  the  different  parts.  He  should  have  a  clear 
bird's-eye  view,  not  only  of  the  subject  as  a  whole,  but 
of  its  relation  to  other  subjects.  This  knowledge  gives 
perspective,  and  corrects  many  errors  resulting  from 
shortsightedness.  It  makes  plain  the  essential  things 
which  need  emphasis,  and  without  which  other  things 
cannot  be  properly  understood. 

Many  young  teachers  are  quite  successful  even  when 
they  keep  but  a  few  weeks  ahead  of  their  class  in  some 
of  the  advance  subjects.  But  this  is  due  to  enthusiasm 
rather  than  ripe  scholarship.  However  far  in  advance 
of  the  class  the  teacher  may  be,  it  is  absolutely  essential 
that  he  review  and  plan  each  lesson  carefully.  If  choice 


PREPARATION  FOR    TEACHING  11 

must  be  made  between  a  young  teacher  who  has  but  a 
student's  knowledge  of  the  subject  but  is  active  and  grow- 
ing intellectually,  and  one  who  has  a  wider  and  deeper 
scholarship  but  has  ceased  to  grow,  the  choice  would  be 
unquestionably  the  one  who  is  still  growing.  Fossils 
may  be  interesting  and  instructive  enough  to  the  geologist, 
but  they  have  no  place  in  the  teacher's  chair. 

2.  A  Knowledge  of  Mind  and  the  Laws  of  Mental 
Growth. —  The  teacher  must  deal,  above  all  else,  with 
mind.  There  can  be  no  substitute,  and  there  are  definite 
laws  of  mental  growth.  It  is  essential,  then,  that  the 
teacher  shall  have  studied  and  become  familiar  with  the 
laws  of  that  which  he  is  to  develop.  He  should  be  ac- 
quainted with  general  psychology.  However,  the  teacher 
is  not  so  much  concerned  with  the  problems  and  strange 
psychic  phenomena  as  with  the  laws  of  mind  growth. 
Educational  psychology  —  the  psychology  needed  by  the 
teacher  —  bears  the  same  relation  to  general  psychology 
that  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  plant  does  to  a  cross  section. 
The  teacher  is  not  concerned  with  the  present  state  of 
the  mind  as  much  as  how  it  came  into  this  state.  It  is 
the  laws  of  growth  which  he  needs  to  understand.  The 
trained  teacher  should  understand  the  laws  of  mental 
growth  until  he  knows  what  notes  to  strike  in  order  to 
produce  proper  mental  harmony.  This  marks  the  differ- 
ence between  the  teacher  prepared  for  his  work  and  the 
untrained  teacher.  One  knows  what  to  do,  or  at  least 
recognizes  a  discord,  while  the  other  does  not.  It  is 
the  difference  between  skilled  and  unskilled  labor.  The 
most  costly  labor  in  the  world  is  unskilled  labor,  and  how 
much  more  so  when  its  product  must  be  immortal  mind. 
The  teacher  carves  not  in  stone  and  marble,  but  in  mind 


12  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

and  spirit.    His  product  endures  not  for  a  day  or  a  year, 
but  for  eternity. 

j.  A  Knowledge  of  Educational  Methods  and  Aims.— 
The  history  of  education  teaches  some  valuable  lessons. 
Each  age  and  people  has  had  its  view  of  life.  This  view 
has  been  expressed  in  its  educational  methods  and  aims. 
The  end  of  education  as  judged  by  a  people  or  an  individ- 
ual gives  coloring  to  the  whole  process  of  education.  The 
teacher  who  has  the  broadest  and  most  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  educational  ideals  of  different  ages  and  peoples, 
has  the  best  criterion  for  his  own  work.  He  has  his  own 
ideal,  the  ripened  fruit  of  all  the  rest,  seasoned  and  cor- 
rected by  the  experience  of  the  ages.  Such  an  ideal  is 
the  best  specific  against  the  fads  and  follies  which  occa- 
sionally flood  our  educational  field.  A  teacher  thus  armed 
can  find  the  wheat  among  the  chaff,  and  is  less  liable 
to  follow  fad  and  fashion  to  the  detriment  of  the  child. 

4.  A  Knowledge  of  School-room  Administration. — 
This  may  come  from  experience  in  the  school-room,  but 
without  forethought  it  may  be  a  costly  experience  to 
both  teacher  and  pupil.  Perhaps  more  teachers  fail  in 
this  than  in  any  other  particular.  They  fail  from  two 
causes, —  lack  of  knowledge  of  what  to  do  and  how  to  do 
it,  or  from  trying  to  adopt  an  elaborate  system  without 
any  adjustment  to  the  conditions  of  the  particular  school. 
Like  John  Lock's  Grand  Model,  it  may  be  too  grand  to 
suit  the  conditions. 

Good  common  sense  is  an  essential  quality  of  the 
teacher,  and  it  will  dictate  the  folly  of  adoption  and  the 
wisdom  of  adaption.  System  is  necessary,  but  not  red 
tape.  The  ability  to  govern  and  conduct  a  school  is 
largely  a  matter  of  system,  knowing  how  and  what  to  do, 


PREPARATION  FOR    TEACHING  13 

and  doing  it  promptly  and  orderly.  This  is  why  the  ex- 
perienced teacher,  if  he  has  not  ceased  to  grow,  is  to  be 
preferred  to  the  inexperienced.  Experience  counts  more 
in  the  administrative  work  of  the  school-room  than  any- 
where else,  and  next  to  experience  comes  a  careful  study 
of  the  principles  and  conditions  underlying  the  work  and 
the  experience  of  others. 


II.    SOME  QUALITIES  OF  A  GOOD  TEACHER 


A  FEW  years  ago  an  institute  conductor  gave  'an  alpha- 
betical list  of  the  qualities  of  a  good  teacher.  He  named 
twenty-five,  all  good  ones,  and  expressed  his  regret  that 
he  could  not  think  of  a  quality  the  spelling  of  which  be- 
gan with  the  letter  x.  He  did  not  exhaust  the  list,  be- 
cause it  would  be  no  trouble  to  find  two  or  more  desirable 
qualities  which  would  begin  with  the  same  letter.  But 
there  are  some  which  stand  out  so  pre-eminently  and 
are  so  essential  to  the  teacher  after  whom  the  boys  and 
girls,  the  most  priceless  product  of  the  State,  will  in- 
evitably pattern  their  lives,  that  they  cannot  be  ignored. 

/.  Good  Character.  —  I  should  place  this  quality  at 
the  head  of  the  list,  and  I  mean  by  it  all  the  two  words 
express  by  either  denotation  or  connotation.  If  our 
teachers  are  to  guide  and  train  for  future  life,  the  highest 
and  noblest  characters  are  none  too  good  as  models.  The 
teacher  frequently  is  and  always  should  be  the  pupil's 
ideal.  How  necessary,  then,  that  this  ideal  be  a  worthy 
one. 

I  remember  well  my  own  experience.  I  was  be- 
tween fifteen  and  sixteen  years  old.  My  teacher  was  a 
young  man,  college  bred,  and  to  me  the  highest  type  of 
perfect  manhood.  His  dress  was  neat  ;  he  always  ap- 
peared well  groomed  ;  he  had  the  many  little  easy  graces 
which  accompany  culture.  I  admired  him,  and  both  con- 
sciously and  unconsciously  modeled  after  him.  The  term 
closed,  and  he  left  the  neighborhood.  Two  years  later 

14 


QUALITIES  OP  A  GOOD  THACHHR  15 

I  met  him.  I  had  grown,  and  I  met  him  no  longer  as  a 
pupil  but  as  an  equal.  I  shall  never  forget  the  meeting. 
We  lunched  together,  and  I  never  heard  more  unnec- 
essary oaths  come  from  a  man  in  the  same  length  of  time 
in  my  life.  Have  you  ever  known  what  it  is-  to  have  your 
faith  brushed  away  in  an  instant?  I  was  adrift  on  life's 
sea.  It  was  a  dangerous  period.  Loss  of  faith  in  the 
individual  causes  loss  of  faith  in  humanity,  and  I  believe 
that  condition  will  take  a  man.  as  near  Inferno  as  any- 
thing can  in  this  life.  Faith  in  humanity  must  be  reached 
through  faith  in  the  individual,  and  it  was  some  years 
before  I  reached  it  again,  before  I  found  others  in  whom 
I  had  perfect  confidence.  With  this  experience  you  may 
see  why  I  place  this  quality  of  the  teacher  —  character  — 
above  all  others. 

I  am  older  now.  In  choosing  a  teacher  for  myself,  I 
would  care  less  for  his  personal  character  than  his  schol- 
arship and  skill ;  but  for  teachers  for  our  immature  boys 
and  girls,  let  me  insist  that  character,  character  of  the 
purest  type,  character  which  will  stand  the  full  sunlight 
and  the  strongest  lens  without  showing  a  flaw,  shall  be 
one  of  the  first  qualities  of  the  teacher. 

There  is  another  quality  so  closely  allied  to  this  that 
I  shall  speak  of  it  under  the  same  heading,  and  that  is 
reputation.  Character  is  what  a  man  is ;  reputation  is 
what  a  man  is  thought  to  be.  Men  and  women  are  often 
misjudged.  The  tongue  of  scandal  will  wag,  and  the 
minds  of  some  persons  are  of  such  fiber  that  they  are 
quick  to  listen  to  evil  suggestions.  The  teacher's  in- 
fluence for  good  in  a  district  may  be  destroyed  by  a  bad 
reputation,  whether  deserved  or  undeserved.  Teachers 
must  live  such  lives  that  they  will  be  above  suspicion, 
and  then  both  reputation  and  character  are  secure. 


16  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

I  am  tempted  here  to  speak  a  word  of  warning  to 
young  teachers,  even  at  the  expense  of  making  this  sec- 
tion long.  Above  all,  be  men  and  women,  and  even  then 
one  must  forego  some  things.  I  have  known  young 
men  to  lose  their  power  for  good  in  a  district  by  giving 
too  much  attention  to  a  favorite  pupil,  or  the  sister  of 
some  pupil  of  the  school,  on  Sunday  afternoons.  I  have 
known  lady  teachers  to  lose  the  respect  of  the  people  and 
their  opportunity  of  doing  good  in  the  neighborhood  by 
too  late  hours  and  consequent  languid  moroseness  in 
school  next  day.  Patrons  are  critical,  and  young  teach- 
ers —  teachers  whose  reputations  are  not  pretty  well 
established  in  the  district —  must  forego  some  of  these 
pleasures,  or  pay  the  price,  which  is  frequently  costly 
enough.  Be  sociable  without  being  frivolous;  be  talk- 
ative without  being  pert ;  be  friendly  without  being  famil- 
iar. Mind  your  own  business,  and  remember  a  good 
listener  is  often  more  entertaining  than  a  great  talker. 
Keep  your  character  unquestioned,  and  look  to  your 
reputation,  for  without  these  you  had  far  better  leave  the 
school-room. 

2.  Scholarly  Habits. —  The  teacher  should  be  awake 
to  all  things  about  him.  The  attainments  of  a  teacher 
are  not  so  important  as  the  habits  of  mind.  Some  of  our 
best  teachers  are  young  men  and  women  who  are  not 
yet  mature,  but  they  are  growing,  and  have  acquired  that 
habit  of  mind  which  is  essential  to  scholarship. 

He  is  thinking,  investigating,  growing  —  full  of  life 
and  enthusiasm,  and  the  spirit  is  contagious  with  his 
pupils.  He  is  accurate  in  detail  without  being  tiresome, 
and  his  pupils  are  trained  in  accuracy.  He  is  growing, 
and  looks  to  the  future.  He  is  not  resting  upon  his 


QUALITIES  OF  A  GOOD  TEACHER  17 

laurels,  but  looking  for  reputation  in  the  future,  based 
upon  his  success  now.  His  life  is  in  his  work.  He  is 
losing  his  life  in  his  work,  but  he  shall  find  it  again  in  the 
future  lives  of  his  pupils.  Were  I  choosing  an  institu- 
tion for  myself  or  for  the  education  of  some  one  else,  I 
should  invariably  choose  an  institution,  a  majority  of 
whose  faculty  were  young  men.  The  success  of  David 
Starr  Jordan,  of  Leland  Stanford  University,  is  due 
largely  to  his  insight  into  the  possibilities  of  men.  He, 
in  two  institutions,  has  consequently  drawn  about  him 
faculties  composed  of  comparatively  young  men,  who 
have  made  themselves  and  the  institutions  famous. 
Growing  mind  alone  can  teach. 

j.  Love  and  Sympathy. —  No  teacher  is  fit  for  the 
school-room  unless  he  has  a  genuine  love  for  children 
and  young  people.  No  sadder  sight  can  be  seen  than  a 
long-faced  pessimist  in  the  school-room.  Talk  about 
cruelty  to  animals,  what  can  be  more  cruel  than  to  keep 
children  from  five  to  seven  hours  a  day  in  the  chilling, 
blighting  influence  of  a  teacher  long  since  dead  to  the 
beauty  of  nature  and  the  buoyancy  of  healthy  childhood, 
firmly  convinced  that  children  are  totally  depraved  ?  Age 
does  not  mark  this  condition ;  it  is  often  found  at  thirty, 
and  is  many  times  absent  at  sixty. 

The  teachers  of  our  children  should  be  full  of  health, 
hope,  sunshine,  and  good  cheer.  They  must  enlist  the 
good  will  and  sympathy  of  the  young.  Pupils  should 
look  to  them,  not  as  masters  to  drive  them  and  to  exact 
penalties,  but  as  friendly  companions  and  leaders,  with 
strength  of  character  enough  to  hold  respect, —  teachers 
who  inspire,  guide,  and  direct  the  pupils  to  higher  and 
nobler  things, —  teachers  who  have  learned  to  see  and 

2 


18  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

to  appreciate  the  beauties  of  nature  and  the  power  to 
lead  pupils  to  do  the  same,  ever  looking  upward,  lifting 
upward,  and  pointing  to  higher  things. 

4.  Sincerity. —  The  teacher  must  love  his  work,  be- 
lieve in  it,  and  at  heart  have  a  burning  desire  to  help 
young  people.     Gushing  and  lip  service  will  not  count. 
Boys  and  girls  must  know  that  the  teacher  has  their 
welfare  at  heart.     The  sincere  teacher  is  in  no  hurry  to 
leave  the  building  if  there  is  a  pupil  who  needs  help.     I 
can  judge  a  teacher  by  the  way  .the  pupils  cluster  about 
him  at  playtime.    The  primary  teacher  may  be  known  by 
the  circle  of  children  about  her  at  recess,  and  the  group 
who  wait  to  go  home  as  she  does. 

The  sincere  teacher  also  will  be  found  at  teachers' 
meetings  and  associations,  and  on  time.  He  will  take 
pride  in  his  professional  library  and  be  alive  to  educa- 
tional progress.  He  will  take  and  read  educational  jour- 
nals and  magazines,  and  frequently  be  found  at  summer 
schools  and  in  graduate  study  in  colleges  and  universi- 
ties. A  catalogue  from  one  college  states  that  every 
member  of  the  faculty  is  a  graduate  of  the  college,  and 
each  member  has  taught  in  the  institution  not  less  than 
ten  years.  They  might  add  that  not  one  of  them  has  done 
advanced  work  in  any  institution  in  the  same  length 
of  time,  and  that  for  some  years  the  attendance  has 
decreased.  The  cause  is  not  hard  to  find.  There  is  such 
a  disease  as  dry  rot  even  in  educational  institutions. 

5.  Worthy  Ambition. —  I  pity  the  school  where  the 
teacher  has  reached  his  highest  ambition.     He  may  be 
content,  but  if  he  has  no  higher  aspirations,  he  is  very  apt 
to  let  things  drag.    I  read  not  long  since  of  a  teacher  who 
had  taught  thirty  years  in  the  same  district  school,  and 


QUALITIES  OP  A  GOOD  TEACHER  19 

I  wondered  what  kind  of  men  and  women  were  in  his 
neighborhood.  Such  might  have  been  for  the  best,  but 
I  doubt  it.  A  middle-aged  man  applied  for  the  super- 
intendency  of  a  town  school,  stating  that  for  ten  years 
he  had  been  principal  of  a  two-roomed  building  in  a  little 
country  town.  The  secretary  of  the  board  replied  that 
they  did  not  care  for  a  man  who  was  without  am 
bition.  It  is  sometimes  said  a  rolling  stone  gathers  no 
moss,  but  the  best  teachers  are  not  desirous  of  becoming 
mossbacks. 

The  teacher  who  is  ambitious  enough  to  improve,  and 
who  seeks  to  do  his  best  in  order  to  advance  in  his  pro- 
fession, will  kindle  more  ambition  in  the  lives  of  his 
pupils  and  make  higher  types  of  men  and  women. 


III.    THE    TEACHER    IN    HIS    RELATION    TO 
THE   COMMUNITY 

THE:  teacher's  relation  to  the  community  has  much 
to  do  with  his  influence  as  a  teacher.  It  is  necessary  to 
the  success  of  the  school  that  the  teacher  be  well  thought 
of.  The  teacher  who  can  adapt  himself  quickest  to  con- 
ditions, who  can  see  these  in  the  broadest  light  and 
comprehend  them  best,  is  the  most  successful  teacher. 
Adaptability  without  loss  of  individuality  is  a  wonder- 
ful power.  It  is  one  of  the  qualities  essential  in  the 
successful  statesman  or  diplomat,  as  well  as  the  success- 
ful teacher. 

Teachers  often  desire  to  free  themselves  from  all 
but  school-room  duties.  This  would  make  their  tasks 
lighter  and  life  easier,  but  unfortunately,  when  this  is 
done,  they  curtail  their  power  for  good  in  the  community 
and  their  usefulness  in  the  school-room.  They  must  mix 
with  the  people.  In  the  rural  and  village  schools  the 
teacher  who  leads  the  life  of  the  recluse,  however  pro- 
ficient in  the  school-room,  however  scholarly  he  may  be, 
however  closely  he  applies  himself  to  his  profession,  loses 
his  opportunity  for  good,  and  nine  times  out  of  ten 
is  treated  with  neglect  if  not  with  contempt  by  the 
people  of  the  community. 

Time  after  time  the  strongest  students  of  a  class  in 
the  college  or  the  university  —  the  thinkers  of  the  class 
—  go  out  and  make  failures  in  schools ;  while  the  slow, 
plodding  students,  those  who  were  only  mediocre  in  their 
classes,  in  fact  sometimes  the  dummies  of  the  class, 

20 


TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  COMMUNITY          21 

go  into  similar  positions  and  are  almost  idolized  by  the 
people,  and  in  turn  do  really  more  for  the  community 
than  the  more  brilliant  students.  We  wonder  at  this, 
and  think  the  people  are  unappreciative  of  true  worth; 
we  rail  at  it  and  speak  of  success  as  a  mere  matter  of 
chance,  when  frequently  it  is  only  the  power  of  adapta- 
tion of  the  person  to  the  position,  or  because  he  is  a 
good  mixer  with  the  people. 

The  primary  duty  of  the  teacher  is  to  educate.  It 
often  happens  that  the  citizens  of  the  district  need  teach- 
ing as  much  as  the  children  if  not  more ;  but  this  requires 
even  greater  skill  than  teaching  children.  "  You  must 
teach  as  if  you  taught  them  not."  Such  a  community 
can  be  reached  and  influenced  only  by  the  teacher  who 
can  meet  and  mingle  with  them,  and  become  one  of  their 
number.  He  must  seem  to  be  on  an  equal  with  every 
man,  and  yet  possess  enough  natural  dignity  and  ability 
to  be  none  the  less  a  leader.  He  must  be  able  to  adapt 
himself  to  circumstances,  and  discreet  enough  to  keep  out 
of  factional  fights  and  neighborhood  broils  without  being 
accused  of  trying  "  to  carry  water  on  both  shoulders." 

The  rocks  upon  which  so  many  schools  are  wrecked 
are  religion  and  politics.  Perhaps  nothing  touches  the 
prejudices  quicker  or  cuts  deeper  than  these  two  things, 
and  many  districts  would  require  diplomats  indeed  to 
steer  clear  of  one  or  the  other. 

A  principal  of  a  public  school  was  wanted.  The 
board  wrote :  "  We  want  a  good,  all-round  school  man 
who  expects  to  make  teaching  a  profession.  We  want  a 
married  man  between  twenty-five  and  thirty-five  years 
old,  one  who  has  had  experience  in  keeping  boarders, 
etc."  A  man  thirty-one  years  old  applied.  He  was  an 
able  school  man,  and  had  never  thought  of  anything  but 


22  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

teaching  for  a  life  work.  He  was  a  graduate  of  a  normal 
school,  a  State  university  of  high  standing,  and  had  had 
three  years'  experience  in  boarding.  They  replied,  "  We 
like  your  record.  Come  and  see  us."  He  wrote  saying 
he  did  not  care  to  visit  them  unless  they  were  pretty 
sure  they  wanted  him.  They  wired,  "  If  you  want  the 
place,  come."  He  went.  He  met  the  board  and  made 
a  good  impression.  They  asked  what  his  church  relations 
were,  and  he  told  them.  They  then  said  no  one  but  a 

could  have  the  place,  as  there  were  three  churches 

in  the  town,  and  they  always  allotted  the  schools  among 
the  different  denominations.  He  didn't  want  it  under  the 
conditions.  He  arrived  home  with  less  money,  but  more 
experience,  and  they  employed  another  teacher. 

No  teacher  worthy  the  name  will  inject  his  secta- 
rianism into  his  public  school  work  or  be  a  political  par- 
tisan in  the  school-room.  When  voting  time  comes,  he 
will  vote ;  he  will  worship  as  he  pleases,  and  further  than 
this  it  is  no  man's  business.  The  teacher,  however,  is 
not  the  man  to  argue  politics  at  the  post-office,  or  discuss 
baptism  at  the  corner  grocery. 

The  stronger  the  teacher's  hold  on  the  community, 
the  easier  his  school  work.  A  father  or  a  mother  in 
five  minutes'  opposition  to  the  plans  of  a  teacher,  can  tear 
down  more  than  the  teacher  can  build  up  in  a  week.  If 
the  teacher  has  the  hearty  support  of  the  parents,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  secure  the  co-operation  and  approval 
of  the  children.  Without  the  support  of  the  parents,  he 
is  almost  powerless,  so  far  as  lasting  good  is  concerned, 
with  the  children. 

The  teacher  must  stand  for  all  that  is  best  in  a  com- 
munity. His  life  should  be  above  reproach.  He  must 
be  a  man  among  men,  always  ready  to  help,  and  yet  never 


TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  COMMUNITY          23 

seeming  to  push  himself  to  the  front.  He  should  know 
when  to  speak,  and  what  to  say,  and  when  to  keep  still. 
A  teacher  is  not  heard  for  his  much  speaking,  but  for 
the  weight  and  common  sense  of  his  words. 

Above  all,  the  teacher  should  stand  for  better  schools. 
He  should  defend  them  against  unjust  attacks,  whether 
prompted  by  ignorance  or  malice.  He  should  be  able 
to  show  to  the  average  man  the  reason  and  the  justifica- 
tion for  the  money  spent  in  the  school.  This  should  be 
done  at  opportune  times,  and  effectively.  If  the  teacher 
cannot  plead  earnestly  and  effectively  the  cause  of  the 
school,  who  can? 

There  are  a  few  things  especially  which  the  teacher 
must  sometimes  defend.  In  some  neighborhoods  the 
schools  —  the  public  schools  —  are  looked  upon  as  pauper 
schools,  or  at  least  schools  for  the  poor.  Such  an  in- 
sinuation is  enough  to  make  his  face  flush  and  his  blood 
tingle. 

I  first  heard  it  from  a  wealthy  physician  of  New  York, 
a  man  who  had  received  his  education  in  a  college  pri- 
vately endowed,  and  for  whose  maintenance  the  contribu- 
tion box  was  passed  at  regular  intervals,  and  to  which 
poor  widows  who  washed  for  a  living  contributed  a  far 
larger  per  cent,  of  their  earnings  than  many  of  the  richly 
perfumed  in  the  front  pews  did  to  the  entire  collections 
for  the  year.  And  yet  this  self-respecting,  hypercritically- 
pious  doctor  would  turn  up  his  nose  at  maintaining  a 
state  university,  and  declared  his  children  should  never 
go  to  the  public  school  to  associate  with  every  Tom, 
Dick,  and  Harry  of  the  neighborhood.  Perhaps  no  better 
indictment  could  be  given  against  his  own  training.  The 
best  lesson  his  children  may  ever  learn  is  when  they 
measure  themselves  with  the  washerwoman's  children. 


24  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

and  it  dawns  on  them  that  they,  and  not  the  latter,  are 
found  wanting.  He  did  not  seem  to  consider  himself  a 
partaker  of  charity  when  he  received  his  mail  at  Uncle 
Sam's  post-office,  or  took  a  trip  on  the  river  made  navi- 
gable by  Uncle  Sam's  locks  and  dams. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  educate,  not  simply  the 
poor,  but  all.  Her  schools,  like  other  institutions,  are 
for  all  alike,  and  the  patron  of  the  public  school  is  no 
more  a  pauper  for  that  reason  than  he  is  a  pauper  for 
patronizing  the  public  post-office,  traveling  along  a  public 
road,  drinking  from  a  public  fountain,  or  standing  be- 
neath a  public  arc  lamp. 

There  are  some  things  the  public  can  do  more  effi- 
ciently than  any  individual  can  do  them.  Every  man, 
woman,  and  child  is  benefited  by  good  public  schools,  the 
bachelor  and  the  childless  family  as  well  as  the  family 
with  children. 

I  went  with  an  Oklahoma  man  not  long  ago  to 
look  at  a  farm.  He  was  a  man  of  means.  He  liked  the 
land;  he  saw  in  it  future  possibilities,  and  all  that.  He 
later  passed  the  school  building  where  his  children  must 
go  to  school  should  he  buy  it.  He  told  me  the  next  day 
he  could  not  think  of  buying  a  farm  where  such  school 
facilities  existed,  and  said  that  five  dollars  an  acre,  or 
an  increase  in  price  of  $1,500  for  the  farm,  would  not 
stand  in  the  way  five  minutes  were  there  good  schools. 
And  many  a  farm  would  be  increased  twenty  to  fifty  per 
cent,  in  market  value  if  good  public  schools,  with  long 
terms  and  well-qualified  teachers,  were  near  them. 

The  other  insinuation  that  should  stir  the  teacher  is 
that  the  people  are  not  able  to  support  the  schools.  This 
principle  is  almost  axiomatic.  A  people  cannot  be  pau- 
perized by  local  taxes  applied  to  local  purposes.  There 


TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  COMMUNITY          25 

is  very  little  of  the  school  tax  that  ever  leaves  the  com- 
munity. The  teacher  is  nearly  always  of  the  community, 
and  in  fact  is  too  often  one  of  the  immediate  locality. 
The  expenses  of  getting  the  wood  and  doing  all  kinds  of 
work  takes  no  money  from  the  community.  If  the  teacher 
does  not  live  in  the  district,  he  boards  there,  and  takes 
very  little  money  away. 

When  the  cry  in  1898  came  from  Cuba  to  come  over 
and  help  them,  no  one  said  we  were  too  poor  to  do  it. 
Compare  the  money  spent  in  the  Spanish- American  War 
fighting  Spain  with  the  money  we  spend  yearly  fighting 
ignorance  and  training  young  people  for  future  useful- 
ness. 

There  is  hardly  an  American  but  takes  pride  in  our 
growing  navy*  When  a  great  warship  is  launched,  it  is 
a  thrilling  event  to  the  nation.  But  do  you  stop  to  think 
that  the  cost  of  one  of  these  vessels,  made  as  a  destruct- 
ive object  whose  whole  purpose  is  to  destroy  life  and 
property,  would  perhaps  maintain  your  state  university 
for  years  ?  Its  cost  would  have  paid  the  expenses  of  hun- 
dreds of  boys  through  the  whole  university  course.  And 
think  what  it  would  mean  to  the  state  to  locate  perma- 
nently within  her  borders  each  year  a  few  hundred  well- 
trained  university  men.  Are  we  to  listen  without  pro- 
test to  the  puny  cry  that  the  state  is  not  financially  able 
to  educate  her  people? 

Another  charge  the  teacher  must  sometimes  meet  is  the 
cost  of  books  and  equipment  to  the  parents.  Fanned  by 
petty  politicians  for  political  effect,  the  idea  prevails  in 
many  places  that  teachers,  school  officials,  and  publishers 
are  in  league  to  rob  the  parents,  while  the  truth  is,  many 
of  the  noisiest  parents  spend  more  for  toys  and  knick- 
nacks  for  their  children  during  the  year  than  for  school 


26  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

books.  Complaining  of  the  cost  of  books  is  more  a  habit 
than  anything  else.  An  incident  of  actual  occurrence 
illustrates  this  fact. 

A  father  was  buying  a  fourth  reader  for  his  boy. 
The  price  was  only  forty  cents.  In  his  effort  to  get  the 
book  for  less  he  bemeaned  vehemently  every  one  who  had 
anything  to  do  with  the  schools,  from  the  publisher  down, 
declaring  they  were  breaking  him  up  buying  books.  He 
bought  it,  and  in  less  than  ten  minutes  bought  three  ten- 
cent  plugs  of  tobacco  and  gave  the  boy  one,  and  did 
not  question  the  price.  The  teacher  should  know  the  ex- 
act amount  of  money  required  to  buy  a  complete  set  of 
books  for  the  school  course.  This  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  years  in  the  course,  will  give  figures  which  will 
silence  most  complaints. 

The  teacher,  too,  must  know  the  value  of  an  education 
to  the  individual.  To  the  person  who  is  educated,  whose 
mind  is  trained  to  appreciate  the  beauty  and  harmony 
about  him,  who  can  understand  the  deeper  meanings  of 
life,  education  has  an  infinite  value.  To  him  education 
is  life ;  it  has  no  money  value. 

No  intelligent  person  would  think  of  placing  a 
money  value  and  a  money  value  alone  on  an  education. 
But  the  teacher  must  deal  with  men  as  they  are,  many 
of  whom  cannot  reason  except  in  dollars  and  cents.  He 
must  be  able  to  present  the  value  of  an  education  in  terms 
which  they  can  understand.  The  music  of  a  master  would 
be  lost  on  a  Fiji  Islander,  while  he  would  listen  and 
be  charmed  by  the  beating  of  a  tin  pan.  The  teacher 
must  show  that  every  dollar  spent  on  education  in  a  com- 
munity returns  a  hundred  cents  plus  golden  dividends, 
to  that  community,  or  else  his  argument  is  lost.  No 


TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  COMMUNITY          27 

task  is  easier.  The  best  homes,  the  finest  farms,  the  most 
improved  stock  and  fruits  and  grains,  and  all  that  marks 
progress  and  civilization,  is  found  among  the  most  intelli- 
gent, best-educated  people.  The  great  commercial  na- 
tions of  the  world  are  those  which  spend  most  on 
education.  Ignorant  people  have  little  to  sell  and  no 
desire  to  buy.  The  best  investment  of  any  community  is 
in  the  education  of  its  citizens. 

The  teacher  must  be  able  to  point  out  to  the  parents 
and  the  pupils  the  value  of  an  education  to  the  individ- 
ual. Here,  too,  he  must  be  able  to  speak  in  terms  which 
they  can  understand.  It  is  estimated  that  the  average 
wages  of  illiterate  persons  in  the  United  States  is  less 
than  $300  a  year.  Assuming  the  earning  period  of  a 
man's  life  to  be  from  the  time  he  is  twenty  until  he  is 
sixty,  or  forty  years,  what  is  the  worth  in  money  to  his 
family  or  to  the  state?  Evidently,  $12,000.  Courts  in 
damage  suits  award  upon  earning  capacity.  The  aver- 
age wages  of  persons  having  a  common-school  education 
in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  $400  a  year.  His 
worth  in  money  from  the  time  he  is  twenty  until  he  is 
sixty,  therefore,  is  $16,000.  The  money  value  to  the 
state  between  the  illiterate  man  and  the  man  with  a  com- 
mon-school education  is  $4,000.  What  makes  the  differ- 
ence? Eight  years'  schooling  of  six  months  to  the  year, 
—  call  it  fifty  months  for  good  measure.  What  is  it 
worth  a  month  for  the  boy  to  be  in  school?  Eighty  dol- 
lars a  month,  four  dollars  a  day  !  How  often  have  you 
known  the  boy  to  be  kept  at  home  for  months  at  a  time 
to  run  errands  or  hoe  in  the  crops,  when  his  earning 
power  could  not  be  more  than  fifty  cents  a  day?  If 
there  is  a  crime  greater  than  highway  robbery,  it  is  rob- 
bery of  children  and  innocents. 


28  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

Drive  home  to  parents  and  pupils  the  value  of 
a  high-school  training.  The  average  earning  power  of 
high-school  graduates  in  the  United  States,  taking  the 
high  school  to  mean  that  large  list  of  secondary  schools 
whose  graduates  will  be  accepted  in  the  standard  colleges 
and  universities,  is  estimated  at  $600  a  year.  The  money 
value  of  the  high-school  graduate  from  twenty  to  sixty 
is  $24,000,  an  increase  of  $8,000  over  those  with  a  com- 
mon-school education.  What  makes  the  difference? 
Four  years'  study  of  nine  months  each, —  count  it  forty 
months, —  and  it  is  worth  $200  a  month  to  the  boy,  or  $10 
a  day,  to  be  in  the  high  school.  I  have  known  the  very 
brightest  of  earnest  boys  to  be  taken  out  of  high  school 
by  niggardly  parents  to  take  jobs  at  $10  a  month. 

Let  us  carry  this  a  little  further,  and  the  figures  may 
interest  the  teachers  themselves.  The  average  earning 
power  of  the  graduates  of  standard  colleges  and  univer- 
sities in  the  United  States  is  $1,000  a  year,  or  $40,000 
for  the  forty  years  of  one's  active  life.  This  is  an  in- 
crease of  $16,000  over  the  high-school  graduate.  What 
makes  the  difference?  Less  than  forty  months'  study. 
What  is  it  worth  to  the  individual  in  money  per  month, 
assuming  that  he  is  at  least  of  average  capacity?  It  is 
worth  $400  per  month,  $20  per  day ;  and  yet  how  many 
will  turn  from  the  university  forever  for  a  forty-dollar- 
a-month  job! 

Study  the  value  of  an  education, —  the  money  value 
as  well  as  the  higher, —  and  be  able  to  drive  home  facts 
and  figures  to  the  average  business  man  in  a  business 
manner,  and  to  your  pupils  and  patrons,  and  more  boys 
will  remain  in  high  school  and  leave  it  for  the  university 
course.  More  money  will  be  voted  for  the  schools,  and 
better  salaries  paid. 


TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  COMMUNITY          29 

The  teacher  who  is  alive  to  his  opportunities  will  leave 
a  lasting  impress  upon  the  community  in  which  he 
teaches. 

In  conclusion  we  would  give  the  following  advice  to 
strengthen  the  teacher's  influence  in  the  community :  — 

1.  Let  the  teacher  be  a  man  or  a  woman  in  the  best 
sense  of  the  term,  frank,  honest,  just,  discreet,  with  con- 
victions upon  school  matters,  but  with  common   sense 
enough  to  see  what  can  be  done  and  what  cannot,  and 
tact  enough  to  lead  without  seeming  to  do  so. 

2.  Above  all  things,  let  him  be  himself.     Nothing  is 
more   detestable  than  the  man   who  courts  popularity. 
However,  the  teacher  must  cultivate  the  qualities  which 
would  make  him  agreeable  to  most  people,  and  prune 
those  qualities  which  would  be  disagreeable. 

3.  Cultivate  breadth,   liberality,   and   discreetness   in 
matters  of  religion  and  politics.     Be  a  man,  with  the 
opinions  and  convictions  of  a  man,  but  learn  to  think 
and  keep  your  mouth  shut  on  partisan  matters. 

4.  Get  acquainted  with  the  people,  especially  the  pa- 
rents.    Do  not  wait  for  them  to  hunt  you  up  and  make 
your  acquaintance.     That  might  be  good  etiquette,  but 
the  chances  are  sixteen  to  one  it  would  not  work  success- 
fully in  your  community.     The  teacher  is  expected  to 
lead  in  getting  acquainted. 

5.  Be  able  to  defend  the  cause  of  education,  and  to 
make  plain  its  value  to  the  community  and  the  individual. 
Speak  at  opportune  times,  and  to  thinking  men,  and  make 
your  plea  strong  enough  to  carry  conviction  with  it. 

6.  Listen  respectfully  to  everybody's  advice,  then  do 
as  you  please. 


30  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

7.  Study  human  nature,  and  be  able,  if  possible,  to 
talk  with  intelligence  to  every  man  about  his  business  or 
his  interests. 

8.  Attend   church   and    Sunday-school,   but   don't  be 
hypocritically  pious. 

9.  Last,  but  not  least,  put  your  best  efforts  into  your 
school  duties.     Prepare  your  work,  plan  your  lessons,  be 
alert,  study.     Send  your  pupils  home  each  day  feeling 
that  they  have  learned  something  during  the  day,  and 
that  it  is  good  to  be  at  school.    This  will  do  much  to  give 
you  the  good  will  of  the  community,  and  make  your  work 
pleasant  and  successful. 


IV.    THE  FIRST  DAY 

HAVE  you  taught?  Do  you  know  the  importance  of 
the  first  day  of  a  term  ?  Do  you  remember  first  days  when 
you  were  a  pupil?  It  is  the  most  important  day  of  the 
session. 

The  first  thing  the  pupil  studies  upon  entering  school 
is  the  teacher.  Each  pupil  is  anxious  to  see  the  new 
teacher,  and  the  more  daring  ones  are  anxious  to  see 
just  what  he  will  do  upon  a  given  occasion.  They  make 
the  occasion,  and  happy  indeed  is  the  teacher  who  ac- 
quits himself  well.  He  is  upon  the  high  road  to  success 
in  that  school. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR   THE    FIRST    DAY. 

i.  The  teacher  should  be  at  his  school  two  or  three 
days  before  the  opening,  and  select  a  good  boarding 
place.  By  all  means  have  a  room  to  yourself.  Econo- 
mize, but  remember  there  is  no  economy  in  denying  your- 
self all  the  comforts  of  home.  It  is  usually  best,  when 
possible,  to  board  with  a  family  who  have  no  children 
in  school.  The  children  are  apt  to  grow  too  familiar, 
and  think  you  just  one  of  the  family.  Then,  too,  other 
children  will  be  jealous,  and  apt  to  imagine  you  make 
pets  of  the  children  with  whom  you  board.  Select  your 
boarding  place,  and  get  settled  down  so  as  to  feel  at 
home  before  the  opening  of  school.  Meet  as  many  of 
the  patrons  as  possible,  and  show  an  interest  in  their 
children.  Ask  their  co-operation,  and  invite  them  to 
visit  the  school.  Be  careful  about  telling  too  many  of 

31 


32  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

your  plans,  or  promising  just  what  you  will  do  in  regard 
to  this  or  that. 

A  few  kind  words,  a  frank,  business-like  manner,  an 
interest  in  the  children,  or  a  little  attention  to  baby 
brother,  too  small  to  attend  school,  if  shown  in  a  natural 
manner,  will  often  win  the  good  will  of  parents  and  open 
the  hearts  of  the  children  to  you.  Such  interest  and 
attention,  however,  must  be  genuine  on  your  part.  Gush- 
ing or  too  much  talk  is  dangerous.  Be  natural,  be  your- 
self, but  be  at  your  best. 

2,  If  your  predecessor  has  left  proper  records,  se- 
cure them,  and  study  them  thoroughly.    These  will  give 
you  the  names  of  most  of  the  pupils,  their  classes,  the 
former  program,  and  the  point  where  each  class  should 
begin  work.     If  you  do  not  have  proper  records,  get  as 
much  of  this  information  as  possible  from  some  of  the 
larger  pupils.    You  can  secure  this  by  a  little  effort  and 
questioning,  and  without  the  pupils'  thinking  strange  of 
the  inquiries.     Be  careful  to  discourage  criticism  either 
of  pupils,  former  teacher,  patrons,  or  methods.     A  little 
tact  on  your  part  will  prevent  you  from  hearing  these 
things. 

3.  From  these  records  you  can  make  all  assignment 
of  lessons,  classification,  etc.     The  former  program  may 
help  you  much  in  preparing  your  temporary  program  for 
the  first  day,  or  your  permanent  program  for  the  term. 
Avoid  radical  changes.     Accept  the  classification  in  all 
cases  until  pupils  prove  to  you  thoroughly  that  they  are 
able  to  do  advanced  work.     Too  often  pupils,   fearing 
they  will  not  be  promoted  at  the  end  of  the  year,  drop 
out  of  school  a  few  weeks  before  the  close  of  the  term. 
Such  pupils  almost  invariably  insist  on  being  promoted 
with  their  class  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  year.    Better 


THE    FIRST   DAY  33 

by  far  hold  them  a  few  weeks  until  they  prove  by  class 
work  and  examination  that  they  are  competent  for  the 
advanced  class.  Pupils  and  parents  should  realize  that 
a  change  of  teachers  does  not  mean  an  erasure  of  all 
records. 

4.  See  that  the  school-room  and  the  school  grounds 
are  in  good  condition  before  the  day  for  school  to  begin. 
This  may  not  be  exactly  the  teacher's  duty,  but  it  is  apt 
to  be  neglected  unless  the  teacher  does  it.     There  is  a 
good  time  coming  when  teachers  will  not  be  expected  to 
look  after  such  things.    Their  work  will  be  professional. 
In  the  more  progressive  districts  the  floors  are  scrubbed, 
the  desks  and  windows  cleaned,  and  the  buildings  and 
grounds  placed  in  good  condition  by  the  school  officials. 
This  is  right  and  proper,  but  if  such  duties  fall  upon 
the  teacher,  let  him  see  to  it  that  they  are  done,  and  done 
well,  before  the  opening  of  school.     The  task  will  be  no 
greater,  and  some  one  must  do  it.     Such  things  must  be 
done.      It   requires   courage   to   teach   school  —  courage 
enough  to  meet  the  indolent  boy,  angry  parent,  or  igno- 
rant hobo  without  flinching,  and  tact  enough  to  avoid  a 
conflict.     It  requires  grit  enough  also  to  tackle  a  fallen 
stove-pipe  or  a  knotty  stick  of  wood,  if  it  becomes  neces- 
sary.   The  school-room  is  no  place  for  timid  people  who 
cannot  meet  emergencies,  and  those  who  cannot  or  will 
not  do  such   little  things   when  circumstances   demand 
should  steer  clear  of  teaching. 

5.  The  teacher  should  spend  much  time  in  and  about 
the  building.    The  feeling  of  newness  must  be  worn  off. 
He  should  plan  the  seating  and  movement  of  classes,  the 
entering  and  dismissing  of  pupils,  and  numerous  other 
things,  before  the  school  opens.     It  is  far  better  to  con- 
sider these  things  carefully  and  decide  them  properly  at 


34  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

the  beginning  of  the  term  than  to  be  obliged  to  make 
changes  later.  Have  your  plans  well  laid,  and  follow 
them  from  the  first. 

6.  Have  everything  planned  for  the  first  day  and  at 
your  tongue's  end.     Have  definite  plans'  for  each  lesson 
in  the  different  subjects.     Study  your  predecessor's  re- 
port carefully.     Know  just  what  each  lesson  is  to  be, 
and  be  able  to  point  out  the  page  and  the  paragraph  with 
least  possible  loss  of  time. 

7.  Have   a  preliminary  program   for  the  first   day's 
work.     Modify  it  later  as  occasion  demands. 

8.  Do  not  bore  the  pupils  by  a  long  list  of  "  thou 
shalt  nots."    Great  talkers  are  seldom  great  doers.    The 
first  day  of  school  is  a  day  to  do  rather  than  to  talk. 
The  philosophy  of  good  school  management  is  to  give 
positive   rather  than   negative   commands.     Give   pupils 
something  to  do  rather  than  forbid  doing.     "  Do  right " 
is  the  only  rule  of  government  necessary,  and  pupils  un- 
derstand it  without  explanation  or  command. 

9.  Be  first  on  the  ground.     This  is  a  good  rule  for 
every  day.     Be  busy,  be  pleasant,  be  quiet,  talk  little,  do 
much,  be  orderly  in  all  things. 

10.  Do  not  waste  time  the  first  morning  getting  the 
names  and  ages  of  pupils.    Teachers  often  waste  half  an 
hour  at  this  useless  exercise.     Nothing  is  a  greater  loss 
of   time,    unless    it   be   the   old-fashioned   morning   and 
evening  roll-call.     With    one    hundred    and    thirty-five 
pupils  under  my  charge  in  the  same  room,  if  a  single  boy 
or  girl  was  not  in  place  at  opening  exercise,  I  knew  who 
was  absent.     Get  pupils  at  work  the  first  morning  in 
the  shortest  possible  time.     "  Satan  finds  some  mischief 
still  for  idle  hands  to  do  " —  and  idle  minds  also.     Plan 


THE  FIRST  DAY  35 

to  have  every  pupil  at  work  within  fifteen  minutes  after 
the  bell  rings.    Carry  out  your  plans. 

ii.  Have  definite  standards  of  conduct.  Know  what 
you  expect  to  permit  and  what  you  do  not.  Permit  no 
conduct  the  first  day  unless  you  expect  to  permit  it  all 
the  time.  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of 
cure.  Many  teachers  make  the  fatal  mistake  of  allowing 
almost  any  kind  of  conduct  the  first  few  days,  thinking 
they  will  get  the  good  will  of  pupils  and  that  the  pupils 
will  settle  down  later.  Nothing  is  a  greater  mistake. 
We  respect  those  most  who  rule  us  best,  if  their  rule  is 
just  and  their  methods  good.  No  greater  compliment  to 
the  teacher  can  be  carried  home  by  the  pupils  in  the 
evening  of  the  first  day  of  school,  and  nothing  which 
portends  a  more  successful  term,  than  the  verdict,  "  He 
knows  what  he  is  doing,  and  means  just  what  he  says." 

What  will  be  the  verdict  of  your  pupils  ? 


V.    THE  PROGRAM 

i 

TEACHERS  cannot  attach  too  much  importance  to  the 

daily  program  of  study  and  recitation.  It  should  be 
made  a  subject  of  careful  thought.  Too  often  the  teacher 
writes  out  a  program  at  random,  and  in  the  same  slip- 
shod manner  uses  it  for  a  whole  term  of  school.  In  fact, 
some  teachers  do  not  give  the  least  thought  to  the  pro- 
gram until  the  morning  they  open  their  school  term. 
Such  negligence  is  inexcusable.  There  are  many  things 
to  be  considered  in  making  a  school  program,  among 
which  are  the  following :  — 

1.  Children  should  be  classified  so  the  teacher  will 
not  have  too  many  recitations.     No  teacher  should  have 
more  than  twenty  recitations  a  day  at  most,  and  a  less 
number  if  possible.    This  can  be  done,  and  yet  the  school 
be  well  graded  by  a  judicious  combination  of  subjects 
and  classes.     A  strong  third  grade  may  do  the  work  of 
a  weak  fourth  grade  in  many  subjects.     Two  or  more 
grades  may  be   frequently  combined  in  spelling,  geog- 
raphy, or  history. 

2.  The  program  must  designate  the  time  and  order 
of  study  as  well  as  of  recitation.     It  is  just  as  essential 
that  a  pupil  be  systematic  in  study  as  in  recitation.    When 
the  time  comes  to  study  geography,  let  all  other  books 
be  laid  aside,  and  let  the  pupils  of  the  class  all  study 
geography.     Let  the  geographies  be  used,  and  let  all 
other  books  and  papers  be  placed  in  the  desk,  and  the 
whole  attention  of  the  class  be  concentrated  upon  geog- 
raphy.    The  teachers  who  insist  upon  this  will  find  it  a 
great  aid  to  discipline. 


THE  PROGRAM  37 

3.  Each   pupil   should   recite   at  least   once   between 
intermissions.     In  nine  tenths  of  our  schools  there  is, 
besides  the  noon  intermission,  a  short  recess  about  the 
middle  of  the  forenoon,  and  another  about  the  middle 
of  the  afternoon,  thus  dividing  the  day  into  four  periods. 
No  class  should  be  without  a  recitation  in  each  of  these 
periods.     Young  pupils  get  restless,  and  the  change  to 
the  recitation  rests  them.     Many  teachers  here  make  a 
mistake   by   having   the   primary   pupils   recite   the   first 
thing    after    recess.      They  are  fresh,  and  can  be  kept 
busy  more  easily  then  than  later.     A  better  plan  would 
be  to  have  them  recite  later,  after  they  have  grown  tired. 
The  recitation  then  rests  them.     Make  it  a  rule  to  have 
your  largest,  most  restless  class  recite  at  those  periods 
when  they  would  be  least  apt  to  study  quietly. 

4.  The  proper  arrangement  of  a  program   requires 
a  due  regard  for  the  sequence  of  subjects.     Have  the 
harder   subject   in   those   periods   of  the   day   when   the 
minds  of  the  pupils  are  in  the  best  condition  to  study. 
Do  not  place  two  or  three  of  the  more  difficult  subjects 
in  immediate  succession.     There  is  another  thing  almost 
universal  in  the  arrangement  of  a  program,  and  yet  it 
is  not  always  the  best.     It  is  that  in  nearly  all  schools 
pupils  prepare  the  lesson  immediately  before  the  recita- 
tion of  that  lesson.     They  prepare  arithmetic  the  hour 
just  before  they  recite  arithmetic,  and  so  on.     In  many 
subjects  the  best  time  to  prepare  the  advance  lesson  is 
immediately  after  the   recitation   of  the  lesson   in  that 
subject.     New  points  have  been  explained  in  class,  and 
new  ideas  received,  which  only  need  application  to  be- 
come firmly  fixed  in  the  pupil's  mind.    The  pupils  leave 
a  good   recitation  filled  with  enthusiasm.     This   is  the 
time  to  strike  while  the  iron  is  hot.     Many  leave  the 


38  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

recitation  in  algebra  rilled  with  thoughts  of  the  binomial 
theorem,  or  anxious  to  try  a  new  statement  of  a  prob- 
lem, and  reluctantly  lay  it  aside  while  they  turn  to  the 
dry  roots  of  the  Latin  verb.  When  they  come  again 
to  algebra,  they  do  not  have  half  the  enthusiasm  they 
had  when  the  subject  was  laid  aside,  and  do  not  accom- 
plish as  much  in  the  same  time.  Let  the  teachers  of  ad- 
vance grades  especially  consider  this  point  in  arranging 
their  programs. 

5.  The  program  should  be  planned  with  due  regard 
to  the  importance  of  the  different  subjects  taught.     All 
subjects  of  the  course  are  not  of  equal  value.     I  knew 
a  school  not  long  ago  where  the  eighth  year  devoted  as 
much  time  to  oral  spelling  as  to  any  other  subject.    The 
study  period  was  as  long  and  the  recitation  period  as 
long.     If  the   class   had  been   remarkably   proficient   in 
spelling,  it  would  have  been  different,  but  I  could  not 
see  that  they  were  any  better  after  having  devoted  all 
this   time   of   the   school    course   to    spelling,    than   the 
average  class.     Having  so  much  time  in  which  to  pre- 
pare  their   spelling   lesson,   they   were   led   to    sluggish 
mental  habits.     It  is  not  the  number  of  times  a  lesson  is 
studied   over,   but  the   mental   tension   during  the   time 
of  study,  that  counts. 

6.  The  length  of  the  recitation  period  should  be  gov- 
erned by  the  subject  and  the  number  in  the  class.     Some 
subjects  require  more  time  than  others,  to  accomplish 
anything  in   the   recitation.     The   recitation   period   for 
primary  pupils  should  be  short,  not  more  than  fifteen 
minutes.     Make  the  recitation  interesting,  to  the  point, 
and  secure  the  attention  of  each  pupil,  otherwise  it  is 
a  failure  in  some  degree. 


VI.     GRADING  A  RURAL  SCHOOL 

IN  all  the  more  progressive  States  the  rural  and  vil- 
lage schools  are  well  graded.  This  is  the  next  step  in 
the  educational  progress  of  the  remaining  States.  The 
time  is  ripe  for  organization.  We  need  courses  of  study 
wisely  planned,  teachers  who  are  competent  to  classify 
and  grade  schools  and  to  follow  and  use  courses  of  study 
intelligently.  It  will  be  a  great  saving  of  energy  and 
bring  wonderful  results.  A  law  giving  State  and  county 
superintendents  the  power  to  act,  and  making  the  com- 
pensation sufficient  to  get  competent  men,  is  needed.  A 
county  superintendent  of  good  judgment  and  discretion 
—  one  with  a  backbone  also  —  will  accomplish  wonders 
in  his  county.  "  Peace  hath  her  victories,  no  less  than 
war/'  and  a  devout  man  with  courage  and  ability  can 
ofttimes  render  a  service  as  great  in  building  up  the 
schools  of  his  county  as  could  be  rendered  on  the  field 
of  battle.  These  victories  of  peace  will  give  new  life 
to  coming  generations. 

Why  Grade  Schools? 

1.  It  economizes  the  teacher's  time.     He  can  teach  a 
class  as  well  as  an  individual. 

2.  It  stimulates  pupils  to  better  work. 

3.  It  secures  better  and  more  regular  attendance. 

4.  It  keeps  pupils  in  school  longer. 

5.  It  gives  patrons  a  better  standard  to  judge  a  child's 
progress.     If  there  is  ever  an  opportunity  for  the  teacher 
to  play  the  part  of  a  charlatan  and  to  ride  a  hobby,  it 

39 


40  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

is  in  an  ungraded  school,  and  this,  too,  to  the  everlasting 
detriment  of  the  child. 

How  to  Grade  a  School. —  There  are  few  greater 
tasks  for  the  young  teacher  than  to  properly  grade  a 
school.  Nowhere  else  does  experience  in  teaching  count 
for  so  much.  A  working  knowledge  of  the  graded  sys- 
tem is  very  valuable.  The  greatest  obstacle  to  grading 
the  country  schools,  however,  is  the  teachers  who  have 
taught  in  them  for  a  number  of  years,  and  are  so  deep 
in  the  educational  ruts  and  traditions  of  the  old-time 
school  that  they  have  no  faith  in  organization  or  grada- 
tion or  anything  different  from  what  they  are  used  to 
doing.  When  a  boy,  I  heard  old  teachers  croak  them- 
selves hoarse  declaring  the  country  schools  could  not  be 
graded,  but  almost  every  school  in  that  State  has  been 
so  closely  graded  now  for  more  than  a  decade  that  a 
pupil  leaving  one  school  fits  in  the  same  grade  in  any 
other  public  school.  Next  to  these  old  teachers  are  the 
young  men  and  women  —  worthy,  ambitious,  good  mate- 
rial —  who  know  nothing  of  a  well-graded  school.  Their 
horizon  is  limited.  They  mean  well,  but  they  have  not 
studied  the  problems  of  school  organization.  They  are 
amateurs  in  the  work,  and  will  learn  by  experience. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  gradation  —  close  gradation 
and  loose  gradation.  The  first  is,  under  most  circum- 
stances, the  better,  but  the  latter  is  a  step  in  the  right 
direction,  and  is  often  the  best  initial  step  in  grading  an 
ungraded  school.  In  close  gradation  pupils  move  along 
in  all  the  branches  of  the  school  course;  in  loose  grada- 
tion they  may  not  be  uniform  in  the  different  subjects 
of  the  course.  They  may  be  in  the  sixth  grade  in  arithme- 
tic and  in  the  fifth  in  grammar.  The  danger  in  loose 
gradation  is  that  pupils  will  devote  too  much  time  to 


GRADING  A   RURAL   SCHOOL  41 

the  particular  subject  they  like  best.     It  gives  teachers 
a  chance  to  ride  their  hobby. 

Some  years  ago,  while  the  author  was  superintendent 
of  schools,  a  boy  entered  school  who  had  been  twice 
through  his  history  of  the  United  States  and  once 
through  the  complete  geography,  but  had  never  studied 
grammar,  and  had  only  been  to  "  United  States  Money  " 
in  Ray's  arithmetic  —  the  only  book  he  had  studied  on 
the  subject. 

Principles  of  Gradation. —  i.  Pupils  should  be  placed 
in  grades  adapted  to  their  advancement  and  ability.  It 
matters  little  what  the  grade  is  called,  so  long  as  the 
work  is  suited  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupil.  Do  not  class 
the  pupil  so  high  that  he  cannot  do  the  work.  More 
pupils  are  injured  by  too  high  than  too  low  classification. 
It  leads  to  a  smattering  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and 
to  habits  of  mental  dissipation.  Too  low  classification 
may  lead  to  a  lack  of  effort  on  the  part  of  pupils.  Noth- 
ing is  a  greater  stimulus  to  study  than  a  good  class  of 
equal  ability  to  do  the  work. 

2.  The  different  subjects  in  the  school  course  should 
be  kept  abreast,  each  subject  receiving  its  share  of  atten- 
tion. This  is  the  bane  of  the  ungraded  school.  Pupils 
go  off  at  a  tangent  on  the  teacher's  hobby.  This  is  where 
a  uniform  course  of  study  is  beneficial.  The  personal 
likes  or  dislikes  of  the  individual  teacher  are  nearly 
eliminated  in  a  course  of  study  planned  carefully  by 
several  persons  familiar  with  the  conditions  of  the 
schools.  The  course  of  study  will  be  treated  more  fully 
in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

I  have  had  pupils  often  enter  my  school  who  were 
reading  in  the  fourth  reader,  but  were  unable  to  make 


42  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

the  combinations  of  numbers  to  ten.  From  one  school  I 
received  a  number  of  such  pupils,  and  some  of  the 
parents  could  not  see  why  their  children  were  not  classed 
as  high  in  the  public  schools  as  they  had  been  in  the 
private  school.  They  could  not  see  that  the  teacher  had 
catered  to  the  whims  of  the  ignorant,  and  graded  the 
pupils  upon  the  basis  of  the  parents'  estimate  of  the 
child,  instead  of  the  amount  of  work  the  child  could  do. 
I  even  heard  a  teacher  (  ?)  once  advocate  that  if  a  parent 
wanted  a  child  in  a  certain  grade,  it  was  the  teacher's 
duty  to  place  it  there.  The  same  argument  would  justify 
the  parent  in  demanding  that  his  child  be  graduated  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  regardless  of  ability. 

3.  Age,  health,  capacity,  and  scholarship  should  be 
considered  in  grading.    Older  pupils  may  often  be  classed 
higher   than   younger    ones,    although   the    examination 
grades  are  the  same.     Some  pupils  have  much  reserve 
power,  while  others  are  working  up  to  their  limit.     The 
first  will  be  stimulated  to  greater  efforts,  while  the  others 
will  be  discouraged  or  overtaxed.     The  gravest  charge 
the  graded  school  has  to  meet  is  the  overwork  of  the 
pupils  in  poor  health.    Do  not  grade  too  high  a  child  who 
is  physically  weak. 

4.  In  the  elementary  school,  reading  and  arithmetic 
should  form  the  basis  of  gradation.     All  pupils  are  in 
these   subjects.     Without  proficiency   in   these   subjects, 
progress  in  other    subjects    is    marred.     The    judicious 
teacher  weighs  well  the  pupil's  progress  in  other  branches, 
but  insists  upon  thorough  work  in  these  two  for  promo- 
tion. 

5.  Do  not  have  too  many  classes.    Grade  and  classify 
your  pupils  so  you  will  never  have  more  than  twenty 


GRADING  A   RURAL   SCHOOL  43 

recitations  a  day,  and  you  should  have  less.  This  can 
be  done  by  judiciously  combining  classes  in  certain 
subjects. 

6.  Do  not  make  your  classes  too  large.     From  five 
to  ten  make  the  best  sized  classes.     If  the  class  is  less 
than  five,  it  is  hard  to  secure  class  interest ;  if  it  is  too 
large,  there  is  little  or  no  chance  for  individual  instruc- 
tion. 

7.  The  amount  of  work  required  must  in  some  degree 
consider  the  taste  of  the  pupils.    Some  will  excel  in  arith- 
metic.    From  such  pupils  require  the  maximum  amount 
of  arithmetic  work.     Others  will  excel  in  language  and 
be  poor  in  arithmetic.    From  them  require  the  maximum 
of  language  and  the  minimum  of  arithmetic. 

8.  Follow  at  first  the   classification   of  your  prede- 
cessor.   Let  pupils  understand  that  they  must  show  them- 
selves proficient  and  above  their  class  before  they  can  be 
classed   higher   than   they   were   assigned   by   their   last 
teacher.     Change  in  the  administration  of  a  well-graded 
school   should   not   mean   a   change   in   classification   of 
pupils.     However,  almost  every  teacher  will  be  greeted 
when  he  enters  a  school  for  the  first  time,  by  a  howl  about 
the   former  teacher  not  promoting  John  and  Jim  and 
the  others  because  she  did  not  like  them.     My  advice  is 
to  let  John  and  Jim  and  the  others  prove  their  worth  to 
you  by  their  works.     If  you  do,  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten  you  will  keep  the  classification  of  the  former  teacher. 

9.  Do  not  make  your  grading  so  iron-clad  that  the 
pupil  may  not  sometimes  be  promoted  irregularly.     Such 
occasions  will  not  occur  often  in  a  well-graded  school, 
and  such  promotions  must  be  made  with  care.     Some 


44  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

pupils  show  off  well  for  a  few  weeks,  but  the  race  is 
won  only  at  the  end. 

10.  Remember  that  promotion  pleases  parents  and 
pupils,  while  the  reverse  does  not.  Seek,  then,  to  promote 
only  when  the  pupil  is  ready  for  the  work  of  the  next 
grade.  If  a  pupil  can  do  more  than  his  class,  but  is  not 
able  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  grade,  assign  extra  work 
rather  than  promote  the  pupil,  and  then  have  him  fail 
to  make  his  grade  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  fail  of 
promotion  to  the  next  class. 


VII.    THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

THE;  very  argument  used  by  many  that  the  rural  and 
village  schools  cannot  follow  a  course  of  study  and  be 
well  graded,  is  the  strongest  argument  for  the  grading 
of  these  schools.  A  graded  course  of  study  will  — 

1.  Secure  better  attendance. 

2.  Secure  more  regular  attendance. 

3.  Keep  pupils  in  school  longer.     Hundreds  of  chil- 
dren are  kept  in  school    and    do    excellent    work    who 
would  not  be  in  school  if  it  were  not  for  the  pleasure  of 
feeling  that  they  would  complete  a  course  of  study.      In 
other  words,  they  want  to  graduate.    Hundreds  of  young 
men  have  spent  two  and  three  profitable  years  in  school, 
much  to  their  good,  led  by  a  desire  to  get  a  diploma. 

4.  Cause   better   work   on   the   part   of   teachers   as 
well  as  pupils.     The  tread-mill  grind  of  going  over  and 
over  the  same  ground  each  year,  disgusts  many  pupils 
with  school.     I  speak  from  experience.     One  school  of 
my  knowledge,  under  a  teacher  who  did  not  believe  in 
the  possibilities  of  grading  the  country  school,  took  a 
class  of  children  five  successive  years  from  the  first  page 
of  Ray's  Third  Part  Arithmetic  to  percentage.    The  terms 
were  short,  and  it  took  just  about  that  long  to  get  over 
that  many  problems.    The  teacher  whose  mental  horizon 
is  so  narrow  that  he  sees  no  possible  way  to  grade  the 
school,  usually  belongs  to  the  class  of  teachers  who  always 
assign  the  next  five  pages,  regardless  of  what  is  treated 
in  them. 

45 


46  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

The  whole  argument  against  the  possibility  of  grad- 
ing the  rural  schools  has  but  one  point,  and  that  is, 
the  children  do  not  attend  regularly.  The  person  who 
has  ever  studied  or  observed  the  influence  of  grading  on 
school  attendance,  knows  that  grading  is  one  of  the  great- 
est promoters  of  regular  attendance.  If  there  is  any- 
thing which  really  stirs  parents  and  makes  them  alive  to 
school  matters,  it  is  the  fact  that  their  child  did  not 
make  his  grade.  The  fear  that  the  child  will  fail  to  pass 
overcomes  many  a  flimsy  excuse  which  otherwise  would 
keep  the  child  out  of  school  near  the  close  of  the  year. 
When  pupils  know  that  if  they  miss  the  last  of  the  term 
they  must  stand  an  examination  on  the  work  before  they 
enter  the  next  grade  the  next  year,  all  will  prefer  to  pass 
at  the  close  rather  than  to  risk  it  after  a  summer's  rest. 
While  teachers  must  put  forth  extra  effort  near  the  close 
of  the  year  to  keep  up  school  interest,  as  every  one  who 
is  fit  to  teach  will  do,  the  graded  school  will  help  much. 

The  graded  rural  school  is  coming  because  it  is  the 
common-sense  thing,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  schools  in 
the  world  under  a  good  teacher.  It  does  not  have  the 
hide-bound  grading  of  the  city,  and  yet  it  is  definite  and 
complete,  and  has  all  the  stimulus  of  class  interest.  It  is 
practical  in  any  school  system.  The  grading  of  a  school 
requires  a  course  of  study,  and  the  planning  of  a  course 
of  study  is  a  task.  Here  is  where  the  knowledge  of  the 
specialist  and  the  good  judgment  of  the  liberally  educated 
man  is  needed.  All  the  conditions  must  be  weighed,  and 
due  consideration  given  to  the  worth  of  studies.  The 
scientist  wants  to  magnify  science,  the  historian  history, 
the  mathematician  mathematics,  and  the  student  of  lan- 
guage is  apt  to  place  too  much  stress  upon  language. 
Herein  lies  the  danger  of  the  specialist  in  the  high 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  47 

schools,  unless  all  is  equalized  and  adjusted  by  a 
liberal-minded  superintendent  of  sound  judgment.  A 
glance  at  a  course  of  study  will  reveal  much  of  the 
mental  calibre  of  the  teachers  in  the  school.  We  find 
high  schools  proper  with  the  university  curricula, —  high 
sounding  names,  long  courses  of  study,  degrees  galore. 

Below  is  given  a  suggestive  outline  of  a  course  of 
study.  It  may  be  modified  to  suit  local  conditions. 

It  would  not  be  expected  that  each  class  have  a  daily 
recitation  in  each  subject  named  below.  In  the  first  year, 
for  example,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  language 
would  all  be  combined ;  then  different  classes  might  be 
combined  in  many  subjects. 

i1  Suggestive  Course  of  Study.       , 
i2  Primary  Grades. 
i3  First  Year. 

i4  Reading. 
24  Writing. 
34  Spelling. 
44  Language. 
54  Numbers. 
64  General  Lessons. 
i5  Singing. 
25  Drawing. 
35  Care  of  the  Body. 
45  Calisthenics. 
55  Morals  and  Manners. 
23  Second  Year. 
i4  Reading. 
24  Writing. 
34  Spelling. 
44  Language. 


48  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

54  Numbers. 

64  General  Lessons. 

i5  Singing. 

25  Drawing. 

35  Care  of  the  Body. 

45  Calisthenics. 

S5  Morals  and  Manners. 
33  Third  Year. 
i4  Reading. 
24  Writing. 
34  Spelling. 
44  Language. 
54  Primary  Arithmetic. 
64  General  Lessons. 

i5  Singing. 

25  Drawing. 

35  Care  of  the  Body. 

45  Nature  Study. 

55  Calisthenics. 

65  Morals  and  Manners. 

22  Intermediate  Grades. 
i3  Fourth  Year. 
i4  Reading. 
24  Writing. 
34  Spelling. 
44  Language. 
S4  Arithmetic. 
64  Geography. 
74  General  Lessons. 

i5  Singing.  ' 

25  Drawing. 

35  Health  Lessons. 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  49 

45  Nature   Study. 

S5  Calisthenics. 

65  Morals  and  Manners. 
23  Fifth  Year. 

i4  Reading  and  Literature. 

24  Writing. 

34  Spelling. 

44  Language. 

54  Arithmetic. 

64  Geography. 

74  General  Lessons. 

i5  Music. 

25  Drawing. 

35  Hygiene. 

45  Nature  or  Agriculture. 

55  Calisthenics. 

65  Morals  and  Manners. 
38  Sixth  Year. 

i4  Literature. 

24  Writing. 

34  Spelling. 

44  Elementary  Grammar. 

54  Arithmetic. 

64  Geography. 

74  History. 

84  General  Lessons. 

i5  Music. 

25  Drawing. 

35  Hygiene. 

45  Nature  or  Agriculture. 

55  Calisthenics. 

65  Morals  and  Manners. 


50  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

32  Advanced  Grades. 
i3  Seventh  Year. 
i4  Literature. 
24  Orthography. 
34  Grammar. 
44  Arithmetic. 
54  Geography. 
64  History. 
74  Physiology. 
84  General  Exercises. 

i5  Music. 

25  Drawing. 

35  Nature   or   Agriculture. 

45  Calisthenics. 

55  Morals  and  Manners. 
23  Eighth  Year. 
i4  Literature. 
24  Orthography. 
34  Grammar  and  Composition. 
44  Arithmetic. 
54  Geography. 
64  History. 
74  Physiology. 
84  General  Exercises. 

i5  Music. 

25  Drawing. 

35  Nature  or  Agriculture. 

45  Calisthenics. 

55  Literary  Exercises. 

65  Morals  and  Manners. 

If  your  county  or  State  does  not  have  a  prescribed 
course  of  study,  you  can  from  this  outline  work  out  a 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  51 

well-planned  course.  Make  careful  estimates  of  what 
your  classes  can  do,  and  plan  to  distribute  this  work  over 
the  different  months  of  the  term,  allowing  a  few  weeks 
for  review  at  the  close  of  the  year,  as  well  as  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  term. 


VIII.    THE    ASSIGNMENT    OF    THE    LESSON 

No  recitation  is  complete  until  the  advanced  lesson  is 
assigned.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  in 
a  good  school,  and  yet  many  teachers  do  not  give  it  a 
second  thought.  It  is  shamefully  true  that  many  times 
neither  the  teacher  nor  the  class  remember  the  exact 
extent  of  the  lesson. 

The  proper  assignment  of  a  lesson  requires  fore- 
thought on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  To  assign  too  much 
leads  pupils  to  a  smattering  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
They  soon  learn  that  it  is  impossible  to  get  over  all  the 
lesson,  hence  they  need  study  only  part  of  the  assign- 
ment. Pupils  are  frequently  found  who  do  not  pretend 
to  get  the  whole  lesson.  The  teacher  is  never  known  to 
get  to  the  end  of  the  lesson,  and  there  is  no  incentive  to 
prepare  all  of  it. 

If  the  lesson  is  too  short,  some  pupils  soon  get  it, 
and  stop  study  —  and  often  stop  others  from  studying ; 
while  a  number,  feeling  that  they  can  soon  prepare  a  little 
short  lesson  like  that,  put  it  off  until  the  very  last  minute, 
and  then  perhaps  do  not  have  half  time  enough  to  pre- 
pare it  as  they  should.  In  assigning  a  lesson,  the  follow- 
ing points  should  be  considered :  — 

i.  The  lesson  should  be  specific.  There  should  be  no 
doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  or  any  member  of  the 
class  about  how  much  is  to  be  done  or  how  it  is  to  be 
prepared.  Teach  pupils  to  listen  to  the  assignment,  and 
then  be  brief  and  definite  yourself. 

52 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  THB  LESSON  53 

2.  The  ability  of  the  class  must  be  considered  in  the 
assignment  of  the  lesson.    Assign  the  work  which  can  be 
done,  and  properly  done,  by  the  average  members  of  the 
class.    Assign  supplementary  topics,  and  work  for  those 
brighter  ones  who  always  get  done  first,  and  then  get 
into  mischief  next.     Help  the  slow  ones  and  encourage 
them,  but  do  not  do  their  work  for  them  nor  permit  it  to 
go  undone. 

3.  The  time  for  the  preparation  must  be  considered 
in  assigning  the  lesson.     Some  teachers  assign  as  much 
when  the  pupils  have  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  study  it  as 
if  they  had  a  quarter  of  a  day.     The  time  of  the  day 
should  be  considered  also.     If  it  must  be  prepared  while 
the  pupils  are  tired  or  when  they  are  fresh  and  rested, 
it  will  modify  the  assignment. 

4.  The  previous  training  of  the  pupils  will  have  much 
to  do  with  the  assignment  of  the  lesson.      After  school 
is  in  session  a  few  months,  and  pupils  are  used  to  sys- 
tematic study,  the  lessons  may  be  longer  than  at  the 
beginning  of  the  term. 

5.  The   teacher   should   know   the   relation   the   new 
lesson  is  to  bear  to  the  previous  lessons  and  to  those 
which  are  to   follow.     This  perspective  is  essential   to 
the  intelligent  assignment  of  the  new  lesson,  otherwise 
it  is  blind  assignment  only. 

6.  The  teacher  should  know  the  contents  of  the  new 
lesson,  and  the  length  of  time  which  it  should  take  the 
class  to  prepare  it.     A  high  school  teacher  of  my  ac- 
quaintance frequently  assigned  lessons  in  algebra  which 
would  have  required  her  on  an  average  of  three  hours 
to  prepare.    It  is  a  very  common  occurrence  for  a  teacher 
to  assign  a  lesson  which  he  could  not  recite  intelligently 
himself  without  a  longer  time  for  study  than  the  class 


54  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

have  to  prepare.     The  teacher  then  grumbles  and  frets 
and  scolds  because  the  pupils  do  not  get  their  lessons. 

7.  Assign  a  reasonable  lesson,  then  require  that  it  be 
properly  prepared  and  recited.  This  is  the  best  specific 
for  a  good  school,  and  for  happy,  hearty  work  from  the 
pupils. 


IX.    THE  RECITATION 

THE  recitation  is  the  best  test  of  the  teacher.  A  man 
may  be  a  good  organizer  of  schools,  and  yet  a  very  poor 
teacher;  a  good  teacher  is  frequently  a  poor  organizer; 
but  a  good  teacher,  whatever  else  he  may  lack,  is  mas- 
ter of  the  recitation.  It  is  in  the  recitation  that  mind 
comes  in  contact  with  mind,  and  this  is  the  greatest  stim- 
ulant of  thought.  Were  it  not  for  the  recitation,  private 
study  and  teaching  by  correspondence  might  take  the 
place  of  regular  school  work.  If  assigning  lessons  were 
the  only  purpose  of  the  teacher,  a  simple  electrical  device 
might  be  arranged  to  indicate  the  pages  and  paragraphs 
and  the  time  to  be  allotted  to  study,  and  the  teacher  could 
be  dispensed  with.  An  aimless,  listless,  worthless  reci- 
tation is  the  most  disorganizing  agency  in  a  school. 

Some  purposes  of  the  recitation  are :  — - 

1.  To  test  the  pupils'  knowledge   and   the  teacher's 
thoroughness  in  instruction. 

2.  To  explain  and  guide  the  pupil's  efforts. 

3.  To  awaken  inquiry  and  stimulate  study  and  in- 
vestigation. 

4.  To  review  previous  work,  deepen  impressions,  and 
aid  pupils  in  the  assimilation  of  knowledge  previously 
learned. 

Each  recitation  will  furnish  opportunity  for  achieving 
these  ends.  Sometimes  one  purpose  will  predominate  in 
the  recitation  and  sometimes  another.  Very  often  we 
make  the  first  the  only  object,  and  then  limit  it  to  a  test 

55 


56  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

of  the  pupil's  preparation.  Perhaps  in  this  day,  when 
the  tendency  is  so  strongly  toward  much  talk  and  little 
thought  in  the  recitation,  this  conservative  tendency  is 
not  to  be  wholly  condemned,  but  the  teacher  who  does 
not  consider  the  recitation  in  part  a  test  of  the  efficiency 
of  his  own  instruction,  is  in  danger  of  becoming  a 
"  Gradgrind  "  without  a  conscience. 

The  second  is  a  legitimate  purpose,  but  may  be  easily 
overdone.  The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  give  the 
child  the  experience  of  the  race  without  serious  loss  of 
time.  A  legitimate  purpose  of  the  recitation,  in  like 
manner,  is  to  direct  the  efforts  of  the  pupil,  so  he  may 
have  a  maximum  of  mental  achievement  in  a  minimum 
of  time.  When  the  pupil  is  groping,  when  he  is  wast- 
ing energy  in  misguided  effort,  help  from  the  teacher 
is  sound  pedagogy.  Yet  in  the  present  day  there  is 
a  strong  tendency  toward  doing  the  thinking  for  the 
pupil,  and  the  teacher  should  give  aid  judiciously.  Noth- 
ing will  give  strength  and  mental  fiber  but  hard  and  con- 
tinued thinking  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  nothing 
breeds  mental  effeminacy  as  fast  as  the  teacher's  doing 
the  thinking  for  the  pupil.  The  teacher  may  make  clear 
the  steps  and  guide  the  efforts,  but  he  must  not  do  the 
work. 

To  awaken  thought  and  stimulate  investigation  is  the 
leading  purpose  of  the  recitation.  Here  the  teacher's 
individuality  and  personality  assert  themselves.  The 
flash  of  the  eye,  the  tone  of  the  voice,  the  activity  of 
the  mind,  his  knowledge  of  human  nature  —  boy  and 
girl  nature  —  here  assert  themselves.  Perfect  self-pos- 
session and  personal  magnetism  serve  to  stimulate  and 
encourage.  The  art  of  questioning  is  an  item  of  im- 
portance. The  dull  teacher  blunts  and  represses  the 


THE  RECITATION  57 

mental  activity  of  the  child.  The  influences  of  some 
teachers  on  a  class  is  like  an  anesthetic,  and  if  continued 
long  enough,  may  produce  a  mental  lethargy  almost  as 
harmful.  Life,  animation,  a  desire  to  know,  quickens 
and  organizes  knowledge.  Definite  aim  and  self-control 
in  the  teacher  make  the  recitation  a  source  of  inspiration 
to  the  pupil,  and  render  unnecessary  the  constant  up- 
braiding so  often  heard  directed  to  lazy  pupils  during 
study  periods. 

Knowledge  is  worthless  until  it  becomes  a  part  of 
the  individual.  Undigested  food  blocks,  congests,  and 
impairs  digestion.  Knowledge  unassimilated  destroys 
mental  power.  It  is  a  law  of  the  mind  that  it  acts  most 
easily  as  it  has  acted  before.  Thought,  whatever  may 
be  its  mysterious  connection  with  the  brain,  leaves  an 
impress  and  tends  to  follow  the  path  of  least  resistance. 
Thinking  along  certain  lines  forms  mental  habits.  It  is 
one  purpose  of  the  recitation  to  strengthen  these  lines. 
Impressions  ever  so  clear  will  fade  from  the  child's  mind 
unless  repeated.  Hence  the  necessity  for  constant  re- 
view, and  the  recitation  should  renew  and  strengthen 
these  impressions,  and  completely  correlate  the  new 
knowledge  with  the  old. 

These  being  the  main  purposes  of  the  recitation,  how 
may  they  be  attained  ?  Much  will  depend  upon  the  per- 
sonality of  the  teacher.  There  are  also  many  minor 
details.  The  criterion  for  testing  these  details  is  this: 
The  minds  of  the  individuals  of  the  class  and  the  mind 
of  the  teacher  must  be  a  unit.  Anything  which  breaks 
this  unity  is  detrimental  to  the  recitation:  anything 
which  promotes  this  unity  is  beneficial  to  the  recitation. 
This  principle  will  settle  many  minor  details.  Young: 


58  MANAGEMENT  AND  METHODS 

teachers  are  prone  to  try  device  after  device,  thinking 
little  of  the  principle  upon  which  they  are  based. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  a  separate  recitation  seat? 
To  bring  the  class  closer  together  where  the  pupils  will 
be  convenient  to  the  blackboard,  the  map,  or  the  chart, 
and  in  close  touch  with  the  teacher,  and  by  this  means 
aid  the  mental  unity  of  the  pupils  and  the  teacher.  Every- 
thing liable  to  divide  the  attention  of  the  class  should 
if  possible  be  removed.  Seriousness,  earnestness,  busi- 
nesslike methods  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  will  get  the 
same  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  Let  every  word  of  the 
teacher  be  to  the  point,  and  do  not  let  him  forget  that 
it  is  the  pupil's  place  to  recite,  and  not  the  teacher's. 

Shall  the  teacher  stop  the  recitation  to  chastise  a  pupil 
for  misconduct?  It  is  sometimes  necessary,  but  rarely 
so.  Is  the  pupil's  conduct  such  that  it  is  more  detri- 
mental to  the  mental  unity  of  the  class  than  the  stopping 
of  the  recitation?  If  not,  unless  the  bad  conduct  of 
the  pupil  is  growing  habitual,  better  ignore  it  at  the  time 
and  continue  the  recitation.  Reprove  the  pupil  in  pri- 
vate, or  after  the  recitation.  If  you  must  stop  the  reci- 
tation to  reprove,  administer  the  reproof  caustic  enough 
so  that  it  will  not  have  to  be  repeated.  Let  the  teacher 
inject  business  methods  and  seriousness  into  the  recita- 
tion, and  pupils  will  catch  the  spirit,  and  this  spirit  will 
be  carried  into  the  study  periods. 

The  teacher  must  have  a  definite  plan  of  the  lesson 
in  mind;  he  must  have  his  knowledge  organized;  he 
must  know  what  is  in  the  lesson  for  the  day ;  he  must 
know  it  as  an  individual  lesson,  and  know  it  in  its  re- 
lation to  that  which  precedes  and  that  which  follows 
it.  He  must  have  an  outline  of  the  lesson  in  his  own 
mind,  and  the  thought  of  the  text,  without  having  to 


THE  RECITATION  59 

refer  to  each  step  in  the  text-book.  If  he  is  teaching 
percentage,  he  should  be  familiar  enough  with  the  au- 
thor's treatment  to  name  the  cases  and  to  give  the  differ- 
ent applications  of  percentage  in  the  order  in  which  the 
author  treats  them.  He  should  also  be  familiar  with 
the  author's  language  in  the  wording  of  the  definitions, 
principles,  and  rules.  The  teacher's  minimum  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  and  its  treatment  should  be  the 
maximum  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  after  studying  it. 
How  can  a  confused,  heterogeneous  mass  of  unorgan- 
ized, unassimilated,  shadowy  facts  —  a  lot  of  hazy,  ghost- 
like generalities  —  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  lead  to 
specific,  definite  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  pupil? 
As  well  attempt  to  make  bricks  out  of  moonshine !  Too 
often  the  recitation  is  a  time-killer,  the  teacher  having 
no  object  but  to  kill  time  until  the  next  recess.  He  puts 
no  soul  into  his  work,  and  the  pupil  gets  no  life  out 
of  it. 

"  He  that  loseth  his  own  life  shall  find  it "  in  the 
future  lives  of  his  pupils. 


X.    EXAMINATIONS 

EXAMINATIONS  are  the  weak  teacher's  hobby,  the 
pupil's  dread,  and  the  critic's  bug-bear,  and  yet  they 
are  necessary  to  a  systematit  school  course.  They  are 
often  overdone,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  are 
often  detrimental  to  nervous,  ambitious  pupils.  The 
detriment,  however,  comes  from  their  abuse  rather  than 
their  use.  Too  often  examinations  are  charged  with 
things  for  which  they  are  not  responsible.  The  pale, 
delicate  girl,  urged  into  society  by  a  mother  too  fearful 
lest  her  daughter  grow  old  on  her  hands,  quits  school 
to  be  rid  of  the  worry  and  nerve  strain  of  examination, 
and  yet  she  can  dance  from  dark  until  daylight.  It  is 
not  infrequent  we  teachers  hear  charges  against  the 
school  which  we  know  to  be  utterly  false.  It  would 
be  a  most  excellent  thing  if  all  girls  who  left  school 
on  account  of  their  health  were  compelled  to  refrain 
from  all  social  dissipation  for  a  twelve  month,  and  better 
still  if  we  could  prevent  all  social  dissipation  during 
the  school  year. 

It  is  noticeable,  also,  that  those  teachers  who  show 
least  proficiency  in  passing  examinations  are  often  the 
most  unreasonable  and  the  most  exacting  in  the  exami- 
nation of  their  pupils.  High  school  teachers  give  ex- 
aminations in  Latin  and  mathematics  hard  enough  that 
if  the  same  questions  had  been  used  in  the  examina- 
tion of  the  teachers  who  prepared  them  six  weeks  before 
they  were  used  to  test  the  pupil,  the  charity  of  the  ex- 
aminer alone  would  have  saved  the  teacher  from  failure. 

60 


EXAMINATIONS  61 

From  an  examination,  a  reasonable  one,  properly 
managed,  good  results  may  come.  Examinations  are 
bad  masters,  but  good  servants.  They  have  been  abused, 
and  this  has  created  prejudice  and  opposition.  They 
serve  some  good  and  even  necessary  purposes : — 

1.  They  stimulate  pupils  to  thorough  study   and   a 
determination   to  master  the   subject.      The  pupil   that 
has  mastered  the  subject  is  always  ready  for  examina- 
tion, and  usually  welcomes  it.     The  shallow  pupil  dreads 
it.     The  fact  that  they  expect  to  be  examined  on  a  sub- 
ject is  an  incentive  to  thorough  work,  and  it  is  a  proper 
incentive  also. 

2.  Examinations   teach   pupils   to   apply   and   to   ex- 
press their  knowledge.      The  man  who  has  his  knowl- 
edge at  hand,  who  can  think  quickly  and  accurately,  who 
can  focus  his  thoughts  upon  a  single  point,  is  the  suc- 
cessful  man.      Examinations   properly   conducted   train 
pupils  in  quick,  accurate,  systematic  thinking. 

3.  Examinations   give   valuable   and    necessary    data 
for  promotions,  records,  and  reports.      To  base  promo- 
tion wholly  upon  examinations  is  an  educational  blun- 
der;   to  wholly  neglect  them  in  making  promotions  is  a 
greater  blunder.     A  combination  of  class  grades  and  ex- 
amination grades  is  a  far  safer  guide.      Every  teacher 
has  seen  pupils  who  are  brilliant  in  recitation,  but  who 
do  not  seem  to  retain  anything  a  week,  and  who  never 
seem  to  get  a  connected  view  or  working  knowledge  of 
any  subject.      On  the  other  hand,  to  make  the  examina- 
tion the  only  test  is  unfair.      The  pupil  may  be  in  poor 
physical  condition  at  the  time  of  examination;    he  may 
be  easily  confused  or  he  may  be  naturally  a  slow  worker ; 
in  either  case  the  examination  grades  would  not  do  him 
justice. 


62  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

The  character  of  the  examination  questions  is  im- 
portant. We  can  as  well  judge  of  a  teacher's  qualifi- 
cations to  teach  by  carefully  considering  a  list  of  ques- 
tions he  prepares  for  the  examination  of  his  class,  as 
to  grade  him  upon  a  list  he  has  answered.  His  teach- 
ing ability  and  ideals  will  be  unconsciously  revealed  in 
his  questions.  The  school  examination  will  test  the 
teacher's  teaching  as  well  as  the  pupil's  learning.  A 
primary  teacher  who  had  given  her  class  a  number  of 
oral  lessons  on  the  camel,  showing  them  pictures  of 
the  camel,  pictures  of  the  caravans,  etc.,  and  had  told 
them  that  the  camel  was  called  the  "  ship  of  the  desert," 
because  it  could  drink  enough  water  to  last  it  many 
days,  that  the  large  hump  on  its  back  was  fat,  and  when 
the  camel  was  without  food  this  fat  went  to  nourish  the 
body,  was  surprised  on  examination,  when  a  boy  said 
the  camel  was  called  the  ship  of  the  desert  because  it 
had  a  big  hump  of  fat  on  its  back,  and  whenever  it  was 
hungry,  it  just  reached  around  and  got  a  bite.  The  ex- 
amination quickly  revealed  the  trouble.  He  did  not 
understand  the  word  nourish. 

The  examination  should  not  be  killing  to  the  body 
or  to  the  mind,  and  should  never  be  what  occasionally 
some  teachers  make  it,  simply  an  implement  of  torture 
for  pupils.  It  should  not  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
stimulate  cramming,  and  should  not  be  a  discouragement 
to  study. 

1.  It   should   be   confined   to    what   the   pupil   ought 
to  know  or  be  able  to  do.      It  is  no  place  for  puzzles,  or 
for  questions   designed   to   show   the   teacher's   intricate 
knowledge  of  the   subject. 

2.  It  should  be  a  test  of  the  pupil's  ability  and  ac- 
quirements, and  not  of  his  power  to  memorize.      The 


EXAMINATIONS 


(V    OF  THE   T-X,  A 
JNIVERSITY) 
63 


examination  should  test  the  pupil's  understanding  of  the 
subject,  and  this  test  will  help  the  teacher,  serving  as 
a  guide  in  his  future  work  with  the  pupil. 

'  3.  It  should  be  thorough,  but  not  tedious.  The  ques- 
tions should  be  pointed  and  clear,  requiring  brief,  plain 
answers.  They  should  avoid  minor  details  and  unim- 
portant technicalities,  and  call  for  explanations,  princi- 
ples, essential  definitions,  and  leading  features. 

4.  It  should  be  made  to  foster  genuine  study  rather 
than  cramming  with  facts.      When  pupils  find  that  the 
examination  tests  the  thoroughness  of  the  work  and  the 
mastery  of  the  subject,  rather  than  the  acquisition  of  a 
mass  of  memorized  facts,  they  will  study  to  understand 
rather  than  simply  to  remember. 

5.  It  should  not  be  too  long.      Teachers  are  some- 
times guilty  of  cruelty  to  children  simply  by  the  length 
of  the  examinations  they  give.      Each  of  us,  man  or 
child,  has  but  a  limited  amount  of  energy  at  any  given 
time.     When  this  is  exhausted,  further  efforts  are  futile. 
I   have   known   teachers   to   give   examinations   upon   a 
single  subject  which  would  keep  a  large  majority  of  the 
class  a  whole  half  day  and  until  after  dark.    If  it  were 
occasionally  an  individual  pupil,  one  would  suppose  the 
pupil  was  slow,  but  when  it  is  a  large  per  cent,  of  the 
class,  it  shows  that  the  teacher  has  misjudged  the  pu- 
pils or  has  a  wrong  conception  of  the  examination.    Such 
things  ought  to  call  down  the  righteous  indignation  of 
an  intelligent  public,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  a  teacher  whose 
judgment  is  at  fault  so  much  in  that  line,  is  the  best 
teacher.     Lengthy  examinations  wear  out  the  pupil,  and 
if  the   teacher  grades   the   papers   properly,   they   wear 
out  the  teacher  also. 


'64  MANAGEMENT  AND  METHODS 

Teachers  as  a  rule  do  not  give  thought  enough  to  the 
preparation  of  the  examination  questions.  They  are 
made  out  hurriedly.  The  teacher  usually  prepares  the 
questions  in  order  to  fit  certain  things  which  have  been 
emphasized  in  class  or  more  plainly  to  test  the  pupils' 
memory.  A  better  plan  would  be  to  have  some  level- 
headed teacher  who  has  not  had  charge  of  the  class  to 
prepare  the  questions  to  test  the  pupils'  knowledge  of 
the  subject.  The  examination  then  will  serve  a  double 
purpose  —  it  will  more  accurately  test  the  pupil,  and  it 
will  also  test  the  teacher's  teaching. 

Examinations  should  not  be  held  too  often.  The 
formal  examination  each  month  is  too  frequent.  Writ- 
ten reviews  and  written  recitations,  however,  should  be 
frequent,  and  should  come  unannounced.  The  pupils 
should  be  trained  to  be  ready  at  any  time,  and  this 
training  will  do  much  to  relieve  the  nervous  strain  upon 
regular  examination  days.  Never  threaten  pupils  with 
examination,  discourage  cramming,  seek  to  get  your  pu- 
pils free  and  self-possessed  upon  examination  days;  as 
far  as  possible  prevent  late  study  in  preparation  for  ex- 
amination ;  plan  your  questions  with  care,  make  them 
to  test  the  understanding  of  pupils,  make  them  fair  and 
of  reasonable  length,  and  your  pupils  will  not  fear  ex- 
amination days,  and  you  will  find  examinations  useful  in 
many  ways,  and  hurtful  in  none. 


XL    REPORTS 

WHEN  the  teacher  has  decided  upon  the  time  and 
plan  of  the  examination,  when  he  has  prepared  the  ques- 
tions and  the  pupils  have  answered  them,  his  task  is 
but  half  done.  The  subject  of  grading  is  an  important 
one,  and  to  the  mind  of  the  conscientious  teacher,  who 
has  the  pupil's  welfare  at  heart, —  and  the  teachers  are 
few  and  far  between  who  have  not, —  there  are  other 
perplexing  questions.  The  cold,  matter-of-fact  teacher, 
the  teacher  without  sympathy,  the  heartless  "  Gradgrind  " 
who  measures  each  answer  with  his  own  mental  yard- 
stick — •  and  this  yard-stick  sometimes  of  questionable  ac- 
curacy—  may  drive  many  sensitive  pupils  from  school 
and  rack  the  nerves  of  many  others.  These  have 
brought  examinations  into  disrepute. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  of  vacillating  tendency, 
the  one  without  personality,  who  is  continually  bidding 
for  popularity,  who  is  satisfied  with  anything,  any  way, 
any  time,  may  take  all  the  seriousness  out  of  the  ex- 
amination, and  make  it  the  laughing-stock  of  the  pupils. 
I  have  seen  teachers'  reports  in  which  it  was  seldom  that 
any  of  the  pupils  made  less  than  95  per  cent.  Such 
grades  may  be  made ;  some  pupils  will  frequently  make 
them.  A  friend  of  mine  has  a  general  average  of  102 
per  cent,  on  a  teacher's  license.  Such  grades  are  rare, 
however.  In  this  case  the  county  superintendent  allowed 
5  per  cent,  general  average  for  attendance  at  county  in- 
stitute, and  his  average  scholarship  was  97  per  cent. 

A  pupil's  grades  mean  little  or  nothing  when  consid- 
ered by  themselves.  Teachers'  standards  of  grading  are 
5  65 


66  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

various.  Heat  and  cold  are  only  relative  terms,  and  the 
grades  of  a  pupil,  likewise,  will  only  indicate  his  stand- 
ing or  progress  compared  with  others  of  the  class.  The 
teacher's  standard  may  be  high  or  low;  he  may  grade 
loosely  or  rigidly,  but  he  must  grade  all  members  of  the 
class  on  the  same  basis.  It  is  like  the  assessment  of 
property.  If  a  town  wants  to  raise  $1,000,  it  makes 
little  difference  whether  property  is  assessed  high  or 
low.  The  rate  will  be  correspondingly  low  or  high,  but 
all  property  must  be  listed  on  the  same  basis. 

Grading  is  necessary  and  serves  three  well-defined 
purposes : — 

1.  It  stimulates  effort  on  the  part    of    pupils.     The 
conscientious   teacher   is   pleased   with   the   success   and 
grieved   at  the   failure   of   pupils.       He   expresses   this 
pleasure  by  words,  looks,  and  grades,  and  the  recorded 
approval  of  the  teacher  is  a  strong  incentive  to  effort. 

2.  Grades   indicate   the   achievement   of   pupils,   and 
the  teacher  is  enabled  to  follow  the  pupil's  growth  more 
closely.     These  should  be  made  a  matter  of  record.     We 
cannot  always  trust  to  memory.      If  carefully  consid- 
ered, recorded  opinion  will  aid  us,  and  these  facts  are 
indispensable. 

3.  Grades,  if  properly  marked,  enable  the  teacher  to 
make  reliable  reports.     Teachers  are  changed  and  pupils 
are  promoted,  and  unless  there  are  reliable  reports,  con- 
fusion results.      No  board  of  education  should  settle  in 
full  with  a  teacher  until  a  complete  and  adequate  report 
is  made  to  the  successor. 

In  marking  grades,  effort,  attainment,  and  growth 
all  deserve  to  be  considered.  You  must  seek  as  far  as 
possible  to  eliminate  feeling.  Mark  favorites  below 


REPORTS  67 

rather  than  above  your  estimate,  and  the  unfortunate 
ones  above  your  estimate.  If  you  must  err,  let  it  be 
on  the  side  of  mercy. 

Promotion  should  be  based  upon  grades  derived  from 
class  work  and  examination  combined.  I  should  divide 
them  evenly.  Some  would  place  more  stress  upon  class 
grades.  There  are  pupils  who  study  simply  to  recite. 
This  is  a  wrong  motive.  Study  should  be  prompted  by 
a  desire  to  know.  Grades  and  marking  are  only  scaffold- 
ing which  enables  us  to  erect  the  building  —  of  no  use 
in  itself,  but  serving  a  useful  purpose. 

In  marking  class  grades  it  need  not  be  done  daily. 
The  highest  office  of  the  teacher  is  to  teach,  not  to  place 
black  marks  after  the  names  of  lazy  boys.  The  teacher 
may  grade  one  recitation  each  week,  the  pupils  not  know- 
ing beforehand  that  they  are  to  be  graded;  or  he  may 
make  a  weekly  estimate,  giving  it  always  honest,  careful 
attention.  This  will  show  very  well  the  progress  of  the 
pupil  in  his  work.  Do  not  refer  to  last  week's  marks 
when  making  the  estimate  for  this  week.  If  you  grade 
with  your  former  estimate  before  you,  you  are  apt  to 
rely  upon  or  be  influenced  by  it,  and  this  is  the  very 
thing  you  should  avoid. 

With  careful  grading,  honest  work,  and  enthusiasm 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  what  per  cent,  of  the  pupils 
should  be  promoted  at  the  end  of  the  year?  This  will 
vary  with  the  class.  There  are  strong  classes  and  weak 
classes.  Sometimes  we  may  be  striving  to  raise  the 
course  of  study,  and  deliberately  plan  to  let  only  the 
fittest  survive.  But  with  regular  attendance  and  a  well- 
graded  school  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  there  should 
not  be  a  large  per  cent,  fail  to  be  promoted.  With  these 
two  conditions  —  regular  attendance  and  good  grading 


68  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

to  begin  with  —  at  least  nine  out  of  ten  should  be  pro- 
moted. A  larger  per  cent,  of  failures  reflects  upon 
the  teacher:  the  order  was  poor,  the  instruction  was  not 
good,  or  there  was  a  lack  of  earnestness  in  school  work. 
Let  the  teacher  examine  himself  before  he  condemns  too 
great  a  per  cent,  of  a  class  to  failure. 

These  grades,  with  the  attendance,  punctuality,  and 
deportment  of  the  pupil,  should  be  reported  to  the  pa- 
rents each  month.  Parents  have  a  right  to  know  the 
progress  of  their  children,  and  the  teacher  who  does 
not  use  a  good  monthly  report  of  some  kind  is  neglect- 
ing an  excellent  opportunity  of  securing  better  attend- 
ance, better  punctuality,  and  harder  work.  The  monthly 
report  keeps  parents  in  touch  with  the  school  and  with 
what  the  children  are  doing.  Even  if  they  are  not  fur- 
nished at  public  expense,  they  save  a  teacher  in  worry 
and  energy  many  times  their  cost. 

REPORT  TO  SUCCESSOR. 

The  greatest  hindrance  to  the  successful  grading 
of  our  schools  is  inadequate  reports  to  successors.  A 
change  of  teachers  means  too  frequently  the  reclassifi- 
cation  of  a  school.  What  if  our  county  officers,  the 
county  clerk,  or  the  county  treasurer  left  such  reports, 
or  as  frequently  happens,  no  report  at  all  ?  No  teacher 
should  change  the  classification  of  a  pupil  as  stated  by 
the  former  teacher  until  he  has  thoroughly  tested  the 
pupil's  ability  for  advanced  work.  Pupils  should  know 
that  a  change  of  teachers  does  not  mean  a  possibility 
of  getting  credit  for  work  not  done. 

No  teacher's  term  of  school  is  complete,  and  no 
teacher  should  be  paid  his  last  month's  salary,  until  he 


REPORTS  69 

has  filed  a  complete  report  to  his  successor.    This  report 
should  include :  — 

1.  The  name  of  each  pupil  and  the  number  of  days 
the  pupil  was  in  school. 

2.  The  subjects  the  pupil  studied  and  his  standing 
in  each  subject. 

3.  The  amount  of  work  done  in  each  subject  and  the 
page  where  you  think  the  work  should  begin  the  next 
term. 

4.  A  brief  summary  of  the  work  done  by  each  grade 
or  class. 

5.  General  recommendations  in  regard  to  course  of 
study,  etc. 

A  good  report  can  be  written  out  on  fools-cap  paper. 
A  printed  form  is  valuable,  and  is  much  more  likely  to  be 
filled  out,  but  it  is  no  way  an  essential.  Tell  your  suc- 
cessor in  plain  terms  the  things  you  would  want  to  know 
if  you  were  a  stranger  and  taking  up  the  school  for  the 
first  time.  Don't  neglect  it.  Your  term  is  not  complete 
until  this  report  is  made.  Don't  claim  your  last  month's 
salary  until  this,  one  of  the  most  important  things,  is 
done. 


XII.    RIGHT  CONDITIONS  FOR  TEACHING 


any  method  or  device  can  be  successful  there 
must  be  right  conditions  in  the  school-room.  The  per- 
sonality of  the  teacher  is  quite  as  manifest  in  placing  the 
pupils  of  the  school  in  the  receptive  attitude  as  in  the 
teaching  process.  It  often  happens  that  teachers  who  un- 
derstand the  laws  of  mental  growth  and  who  have 
well-laid  plans  of  instruction  fail  because  of  lack  of 
government.  They  do  not  have  that  almost  indefinable 
something  which  commands  attention  without  demand- 
ing it. 

Not  all  good  teachers  are  born  teachers.  We  have 
numbers  of  sincere,  earnest  teachers  whose  results  are 
thoroughly  satisfactory,  and  yet  they  could  not  be  classed 
among  those  fortunate  ones  who  may  be  called  born 
teachers.  Skill  may  come  by  intelligent  study  and  prac- 
tice as  much  in  teaching  as  in  hundreds  of  other  walks 
of  life.  All  that  is  required  is  intelligence,  hard  work, 
a  love  for  the  task,  and  a  determination  to  succeed. 

It  is  true  that  in  teaching,  as  in  "other  occupations, 
we  may  find  those  whose  God-given  talents  seem  to  im- 
pel them  to  the  work.  They  are  geniuses  in  their  line. 
But  most  of  those  who  believe  themselves  to  be  born 
teachers  have  a  secret  reason  for  their  belief,  which  is 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  to  save  the  time  and  expense 
of  being  made.  Each  teacher  should  catechize  himself: 
"  I  am  failing  here  in  this  ;  why  is  it  ?  "  In  that  hour  of 
self-communion  —  and  each  teacher  should  have  such 
an  hour  once  or  twice  a  week  —  let  him  earnestly  ques- 

70 


RIGHT  CONDITIONS  FOR  TEACHING  71 

tion  himself  as  to  the  cause  of  his  failure,  and  the  chances 
are  many  to  one  that  in  seeking  the  cause  of  failure  he 
will  find  the  remedy. 

There  are  a  few  rocks  so  dangerous,  and  so  many 
teachers  are  wrecked  upon  them,  that  to  point  out  some 
of  them  may  not  be  amiss. 

/.  Daily  Preparation.— :  It  would  hardly  seem  neces- 
sary that  teachers  must  be  reminded  of  their  duty  to  pre- 
pare each  day's  work  carefully.  This  preparation  should 
not  only  include  the  details  of  the  lesson  for  the  partic- 
ular recitation,  but  this  lesson  should  be  seen  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  lessons  preceding  and  those  to  follow.  Know 
what  you  want  to  teach ;  why  you  want  to  teach  it ;  what 
preparation  your  class  has  for  this  new  lesson,  and  how 
this  new  lesson  is  to  hinge  to  the  next  one.  This  requires 
that  the  teacher  have  a  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject taught  and  the  proper  relation  to  the  other  subjects 
of  the  school  course.  This  fresh  preparation  for  the 
work  of  the  day  will  add  zest  to  the  recitation.  It  will 
be  reflected  in  the  tone  of  the  voice,  the  elastic  step,  and 
the  sparkling  eye  of  the  teacher.  He  will  not  be  re- 
quired to  demand  attention,  his  whole  attitude  will  si- 
lently command  it.  His  whole  bearing  will  proclaim  the 
importance  of  the  lesson,  and  the  pupils  will  be  aroused 
to  the  receptive  attitude. 

Daily  preparation  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  best 
teaching,  however  thorough  the  teacher  may  have  once 
been  in  the  subject.  Too  much  of  our  teaching  is  sleepy, 
slip-shod,  listless,  indefinite  presentation  of  a  lot  of  shad- 
owy facts  lying  incoherent  in  the  teacher's  mind,  and  the 
results  are  equally  indefinite  in  the  pupil's  mind.  Stop 
a  recitation,  and  ask  the  teacher  to  recite  instead  of  the 


72  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

pupil,  and  see  how  often  the  record  of  the  recitation  will 
be  a  failure.  Let  him  have  a  message  to  give,  a  lesson 
to  teach,  and  let  his  soul  be  on  fire  to  deliver  this  message, 
and  then  let  him  remember  the  child  is  educated,  not  by 
what  the  teacher  does  for  it,  but  by  what  he  causes  the 
child  to  do  for  itself,  and  his  teaching  results  are  apt 
to  be  safe. 

2.  Conduct  in  the  School-room. —  Good  order  does 
not  mean  simply  quiet.  There  is  the  noise  of  work,  and 
the  noise  of  confusion  and  idleness.  There  is  the  quiet- 
ness which  comes  from  interest  and  study,  and  the  quiet- 
ness which  comes  from  fear  of  the  teacher.  Children 
are  controlled  by  internal  and  external  motives.  You 
may  be  a  very  poor  disciplinarian,  and  have  almost  death- 
like stillness  in  your  study  room.  It  is  the  discipline  of 
the  tyrant,  and  this  kind  of  discipline  is  very  frequently 
an  incubator  for  later  lawlessness.  Can  you  leave  your 
school-room  for  ten  minutes  or  half  an  hour  and  on  re- 
turning find  that  things  have  gone  orderly?  If  not, 
why  not?  Good  order  in  the  school-room  implies  that 
each  child  is  able  to  do  its  best  work  at  any  time  without 
external  disturbance. 

Good  order  in  the  recitation  requires  that  the  mind 
of  the  teacher  and  the  mind  of  the  class  be  in  perfect 
contact.  This  is  the  criterion  of  all  school  rules,  Hozv 
does  this  affect  the  unity  of  the  mind  of  the  teacher  and 
the  pupil?  During  the  study  period  the  author  takes  the 
place  of  the  teacher,  and  the  same  criterion  holds  good. 
This  will  answer  a  multitude  of  questions  on  school  gov- 
ernment about  which  the  young  teacher  worries  and  often 
consults  older  teachers.  "Shall  I  permit  whispering?" 
they  ask.  "  Shall  I  permit  pupils  in  the  room  to  ask 
questions  when  I  am  hearing  a  recitation  ? "  "  Shall  I 


RIGHT  CONDITIONS  FOR  TEACHING  73 

permit  a  child  to  get  a  drink  during  the  school  hours  ?  " 
"  Shall  I  stop  a  recitation  to  reprimand  a  boy?  "  All  these 
and  scores  of  others  may  be  answered  as  well  as  any 
experienced  teacher  can  answer  them  by  testing  them 
by  the  above  criterion.  Do  that  which  will  result  in  the 
closest  possible  contact  of  the  mind  of  the  teacher  and 
the  mind  of  the  class.  It  is  very  true  we  may  often  have 
to  choose  the  lesser  of  two  evils,  but  a  reference  to  the 
above  principle  will  be  the  best  possible  guide.  If  the 
conduct  of  the  pupil  will  continue  to  disturb  the  attention 
of  the  class  more  than  the  reprimand,  by  all  means  give 
the  reprimand,  but  do  it  so  effectively  that  it  will  seldom 
have  to  be  repeated. 

j.  The  School-room  at  Recess. —  Much  of  the  disor- 
der in  the  school-room  is  due  to  the  conduct  of  pupils 
in  the  room  at  intermission.  The  play-ground  and  the 
open  air  are  the  places  for  sport.  From  the  very  first 
pupils  should  enter  the  school-room  as  if  it  were  sacred 
ground,  not  necessarily  with  a  long  face,  but  with  a  feel- 
ing that  all  frivolousness  must  be  laid  aside.  Running  and 
romping  and  loud  talking  and  boisterousness  at  playtime 
in  the  school-room  lead  to  familiarity  with  such  things 
until  pupils  do  not  feel  that  calm  which  is  so  conducive 
to  right  conduct  and  proper  study  when  they  enter  the 
room  after  recess.  Much  of  the  sacredness,  the  calm, 
restful  sweetness  which  comes  upon  entering  the  church 
would  be  destroyed  if  all  kinds  of  boisterousness  and 
noisy  carousals  were  indulged  in  in  the  church.  The 
same  is  true  to  a  degree  in  the  school-room. 

It  is  decidedly  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  be  in  the 
school-room  half  an  hour  before  the  time  of  opening 
school.  If  a  teacher  is  habitually  late,  the  school  board 
should  demand  a  reform  or  a  resignation.  The  pande- 


74  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

monium  which  reigns  in  the  school-room  at  such  times 
is  detrimental  to  good  teaching.  If  pupils  bring  lunch, 
the  teacher  should  remain  about  the  building  at  the  noon 
hour.  Some  persons  may  object  to  this,  and  picture  the 
poor  teacher  eating  a  cold  lunch  day  after  day  and  breed- 
ing dyspepsia  with  its  indescribable  nerve-wrecking  mis- 
eries. While  this  might  be  true  in  rare  instances,  dozens 
of  cases  of  nervous  prostration  may  be  traced  as  directly 
to  the  seeds  of  disorder  sown  in  the  teacher's  absence 
from  the  room  at  the  noon  hour.  And  here,  too,  we 
should  choose  the  lesser  of  two  evils. 

Teachers  should  see  that  pupils  use  proper  decorum 
in  entering  the  school-room  after  recess.  All  games 
should  cease  at  the  ringing  of  the  first  bell,  and  pupils 
prepare  to  enter  the  building.  The  plan  of  movement 
here  will  depend  largely  upon  the  size  of  the  school.  In 
cities  and  large  towns,  where  hundreds  of  children  are 
to  be  managed,  the  regular  march  is  necessary.  In 
smaller  places  simply  falling  in  line  without  regard 
to  grade  or  position  in  the  room  may  be  all  that  is  neces- 
sary. But  in  all  cases  they  should  enter  the  room  quietly, 
and  the  boys  should  remove  their  hats  at  the  door  as  if 
they  were  entering  a  church  or  private  home. 

4.  System  in  Calling  and  Dismissing  Classes. —  There 
must  be  some  system  also  in  calling  and  dismissing 
classes.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  to  see  a  class 
called  and  pupils  come  rushing  helter-skelter,  hurry- 
scurry,  to  get  favorite  places  on  the  recitation  seat.  Each 
pupil  should  have  a  definite  place  during  the  recitation 
period.  This  position  will  be  determined  — 

(i)  By  the  pupil's  location  in  the  room  and  the  con- 
sequent position  as  the  lines  pass  to  the  recitation  seat. 


RIGHT  CONDITIONS  FOR  TEACHING  75 

(2)  By  the  congeniality  of  kindred  spirits  with 
which  he  may  be  thrown  in  the  recitation.  It  often 
happens  that  two  fairly  good  boys  are  so  constructed 
that  they  cannot  sit  near  each  other  without  pinching, 
kicking,  or  disturbing  each  other  as  well  as  their  class- 
mates during  the  recitation.  Separate  such  as  far  as 
space  will  permit. 

Good  order  in  the  school-room  and  in  the  recitation 
are  influenced  greatly  by  the  tact  and  good  judgment 
of  the  teacher  in  seating  pupils.  Have  a  definite  signal 
which  calls  the  attention  of  the  class.  This  may  be  a 
gentle  tap  of  the  call-bell  or  of  a  pencil,  or  it  -may  be 
the  counting  of  "  one  "  by  the  teacher.  At  this  signal 
each  pupil  begins  promptly  to  prepare  to  rise  if  the  class 
is  to  pass  to  the  recitation  seat,  or  to  lay  aside  all  un- . 
necessary  books  or  pencils  if  the  class  are  to  remain  in 
their  seats  for  the  recitation.  When  all  are  ready,  the 
second  signal  is  given,  and  the  class  rise  and  stand  or- 
derly. A  third  signal  is  given,  and  they  pass  quietly  to 
the  recitation  seat.  When  all  are  in  place,  at  a  gentle 
nod  of  the  head  or  a  fourth  signal  all  are  seated.  If  the 
recitation  is  to  be  conducted  with  the  pupils  in  their 
regular  seats,  all  books,  papers,  pencils,  rules,  etc.,  not 
needed  in  the  recitation  should  be  laid  aside.  These 
little  things  are  disorder  breeders,  as  they  are  contin- 
ually attracting  the  attention.  Flowers,  perfume  cards, 
etc.,  pleasant  as  they  are,  often  become  nuisances  in  the 
school-room,  as  they  come  too  frequently  between  the 
pupils  and  their  school  duties. 

The  same  plan  should  be  followed  in  dismissing 
classes  as  in  calling  them.  When  a  class  is  seated,  give 
ample  time  for  them  to  get  their  books  and  papers  ready 
to  prepare  the  next  lesson  before  the  next  class  is  called. 


76  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

Never  seem  to  hurry;  it  is  a  waste  of  time.  Promptness 
of  action,  but  not  haste,  is  in  this  as  in  all  things,  a  time 
saver. 

5.  Dismission. —  It  is  of  just  as  much  importance  to 
have  system  and  decorum  in  dismissing  pupils  as  in  call- 
ing them.    Here  is  the  one  time  of  all    the  day  when  the 
teacher  has  the  advantage  of  the  pupils,  and  the  one  time 
where   he   can   least   afford   to   hurry.     How   often   the 
nervous  teacher,  anxious  to  be  relieved  of  the  responsi- 
bility   of    government,  dismisses  quickly  to  avoid    con- 
fusion.   Instead,  he  should  be  so  gentle  and  deliberate  in 
his  movements  that  the  pupils  are  quieted  and  rested. 
Perfect  quietness   should  precede  every  dismission.     A 
moment  of  perfect  quietness,  a  pleasant  word,  and  a  de- 
liberate manner  of  dismissing  in  the  evening  acts  as  a 
kind  of  dessert  for  the  day's  work,  and  leaves  a  pleasant 
flavor;  while  a  jump  and  shout,  a  snatching  of  hats  and 
a  rush  for  the  door  will  disorganize  for  a  week.     Moni- 
tors  should   distribute  wraps   and   everything  be   made 
ready,  then  at  the  signal  all  prepare  to  rise,  and  the  lines 
pass  as  quietly  and  orderly  from  the  building  and  the 
grounds  as  they  do  to  a  recitation. 

6.  Opening  School. —  Too  many  teachers  give  little 
heed  to  the  opening  exercises,  forgetting  how  important 
it  is  and  how.it  influences  the  whole  day's  work.     A 
good  beginning  may  not  always  presage  a  good  ending, 
but  it   often   does.     The   pupils   come   together   in   the 
morning,  some  gorged  upon  dainties  of  all  kinds,  others 
from  a  breakfast  of  the  coarsest  of  plain  food,  and  others 
perhaps  who  may  still  be  hungry.      Some  are  peevish  from 
petting,  others  sour  from  scolding,  some  glad  to  get  to 
the  school-room,  others  disgusted  with  its  restrictions. 


RIGHT  CONDITIONS  FOR   TEACHING  77 

The  purpose  of  the  opening  exercise  is  to  collect  the 
wandering  thoughts  of  the  pupils,  drive  out  all  peevish- 
ness, and  bring  the  school  into  a  teachable  attitude.  To 
do  this  requires  skill  and  study  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
Nowhere  else  is  there  more  need  for  planning  and 
preparation.  The  teacher  must  know  before  the  time 
comes  "for  the  opening  of  school  what  he  expects  to  give 
for  opening  exercises.  There  must  be  variety  also.  Chil- 
dren tire  of  sameness.  It  must  be  definite.  It  must  be 
interesting.  It  must  be  brief  and  to  the  point.  The  fol- 
lowing suggestions  may  be  useful : — 

(1)  A  cheerful  song,  or  two  or  more  songs,  if  the 
pupils  like  to  sing,  makes  a  good  exercise.     Singing,  not 
lessons  in  music,  should  be  a  prominent  part  of  the  open- 
ing exercises. 

(2)  A  solo  or  a  recitation  from  some  one  or  a  duet 
is  good.    Let  this  come  as  a  surprise  to  the  school. 

(3)  A  humorous  or  pathetic  story,  if  well  related  or 
read,  is  in  place.    Do  not  spoil  it  by  tacking  a  long  moral 
to  it. 

(4)  A  Scripture  reading  without  comment  is  not  out 
of  place,  and  a  brief  prayer  if  it  come  from  the  heart, 
may  follow  the  lesson. 

(5)  A  brief  news  report  by   some  pupil,   giving  a 
summary  of  the  world's  events  for  the  week,  may  be 
made  interesting. 

(6)  Give  a  brief  biography  of  some  of  our  great  men 
now  living,  and  let  it  be  studied  and  presented  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  an  inspiring  lesson  to  boys  and  girls. 

(7)  Discuss   social  questions,   such  as  strikes,   elec- 
tions, etc.,  being  sure  to  be  liberal  always  in  your  views 
and  criticisms. 


78  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

(8)  Write  a  motto  or  maxim  on  the  board,  and  dis- 
cuss its  meaning  and  application  with  pupils. 

(9)  Perform   an   interesting   experiment   which   ex- 
plains some  scientific  fact  or  principle.    This,  if  properly 
done,  begets  intense  interest  and  is  very  valuable. 

(10)  Short  queries,  if  appropriate,   are  good. 

(n)  Information  lessons  on  plants  and  animals,  il- 
lustrated when  possible  by  the  object  or  by  pictures,  will 
be  both  interesting  and  profitable. 

(12)  Discuss  the  manufacture  of  common  articles, 
such  as  pens,  pencils,  boots,  shoes,  buttons,  etc.     When 
possible,  visit  such  factories  and  make  close  observations 
so  that  you  can  give  a  clear  description.     The  teacher 
who  fails  to  visit  a  factory  when  he  has  an  opportunity 
is  not  awake  to  his  best  interests. 

(13)  Give    interesting    facts    graphically    illustrated. 
For  example,  we  raised  two  billion  bushels  of  corn  in 
the  United  States  in  1902.     Counting  twenty  bushels  to 
the  load  and   twenty   feet  of  space   for  the  team  and 
wagon,  how  many  times  will  the  procession  which  moves 
the  corn  reach  round  the  earth  at  the  equator?     How 
many  tons  of  water  fell  in  your  county  last  year?    How 
many  tons  fell  upon  the  roof  of  your  school-house? 

(14)  .Select    a    number    of    historic    quotations,    as. 
"  Don't  give  up  the  ship/'  place  them  on  the  board,  and 
have  pupils  tell  when,  by  whom,  and  upon  what  occasions 
they  were  used. 

(15)  Give  brief  descriptions  of  historic  places  and 
things  you  have  seen.     Be  modest  and  be  brief. 

(16)  Describe  the  habits,  manners,  and  customs  of 
strange  peoples  of  the   earth. 


RIGHT   CONDITIONS   FOR    TEACHING  79 

(17)  Have  each  pupil  give  a  memory  gem.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  profitable  exercises. 
Pupils  like  it,  and  it  stores  their  minds  with  beautiful 
thoughts  and  gems  to  cheer  and  brighten  their  future. 

Make  your  opening  exercise  what  it  should  be,  and 
your  tardiness  will  decrease,  and  the  good  effects  will  be 
felt  all  day  in  your  school-room. 


XIII.    GOVERNING  POWER  IN  THE  TEACHER 

No  school  can  be  well  organized  unless  certain  regu- 
lations can  be  enforced.  If  conditions  were  ideal,  the 
minimum  of  regulations  might  suffice ;  but  conditions  are 
not  ideal,  and  we  cannot  hope  for  them  to  be  this  side 
of  the  millennium. 

Until  much  of  the  perverseness  of  human  nature  is 
overcome,  and  until  the  homes  become  ideal  homes,  a 
part  of  a  teacher's  energy  must  be  spent  in  the  enforce- 
ment of  regulations.  The  government  which  cannot 
enforce  its  laws  loses  the  respect  of  its  citizens.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  school  is  to  be  a  positive  force,  an  uplifting 
force,  in  the  lives  of  the  pupils.  The  stronger  the  teacher, 
the  less  energy  will  be  expended  in  the  enforcement 
of  regulations;  but  the  power  of  enforcement  will  be 
there  nevertheless.  It  is  this  latent  reserve  power  which 
marks  the  strong  teacher. 

There  are  two  styles  of  order  in  the  school-room, 
which  may  appropriately  be  called  the  military  and  the 
natural  order.  In  the  first  the  force  is  external.  Pupils 
may  be  drilled  to  clock-like  precision  in  order  and  move- 
ments. Such  work  shows  off  well,  and  it  has  many 
strong  points.  It  has,  however,  many  weak  points.  It 
is  frequently  superficial,  being  thrown  aside  as  soon  as 
the  pupil  is  out  of  the  teacher's  sight. 

The  natural  order  comes  from  a  majority  of  the 
pupils  being  enthusiastically  engaged  in  school  work. 
They  form  a  public  opinion  which  compels  respectful 
and  orderly  behavior.  The  impulse  comes  from  within, 

80 


GOVERNING  POWER  IN  THE  TEACHER  81 

is  born  .of  a  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  is 
lasting. 

Governing  power  is  the  ability  to  train  the  pupil  to 
the  habit  of  self-control.  The  teacher  may  master  the 
elements  in  this  power  and  attain  by  conscious  effort  a 
high  degree  of  success.  Among  the  elements  of  govern- 
ing power  may  be  named  — 

j.  System.  Much  of  the  lack  of  order  in  school  is 
due  to  lack  of  system  in  the  teacher.  The  factors  which 
make  up  system  are  time,  place,  and  method.  System 
implies  a  time  for  everything.  Regularity  and  prompt- 
ness are  the  pillars  of  good  government.  A  well-regu- 
lated program  which  provides  congenial  employment  for 
each  pupil  at  each  period  in  the  day,  is  an  excellent  foun- 
dation for  good  government.  System  means  also  a 
place  for  hats,  a  place  for  wraps,  books  in  the  desk, 
papers  folded  and  placed  properly  or  thrown  in  the  waste 
basket,  building  and  grounds  neat  and  clean, —  all  these 
show  system  in  the  teacher. 

System  means  method  in  doing  everything.  Preci- 
sion should  characterize  all  school  movements.  In  calling 
and  dismissing  classes,  and  all  school  exercises,  exact- 
ness is  desirable.  Children  thus  acquire  habits  of  prompt 
obedience,  and  learn  to  move  to  the  rhythm  of  society. 

2.  Energy.  The  lazy  teacher  is  an  intolerable  nui- 
sance. Labor  is  genius.  It  keeps  things  moving.  It  re- 
quires energy,  plenty  of  energy,  to  keep  a  school  going 
and  up  to  the  standard.  The  lazy  teacher  lets  things 
drag.  He  makes  no  preparation  for  the  recitation,  and 
gives  no  illustrations.  In  sleep-inviting  monotones  he 
drawls  through  the  weary  hours,  while  disorder  reigns 
and  mischief  flourishes. 

6 


82  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

j.  Vigilance.  This  is  the  price  of  the  teacher's  suc- 
cess. The  teacher  may  be  ever  so  systematic  and  full 
of  energy,  but  if  he  is  successful  in  government  he  must 
know  the  feelings  and  purposes  of  the  pupils,  and  see 
and  hear  in  detail  that  he  may  effectively  correct.  Vigi- 
lance prevents  faults,  and  prevention  is  better  than  cor- 
rection. The  vigilant  teacher  watches  that  he  may 
encourage  and  train,  and  not  to  find  fault. 

Fault-finding  is  one  of  the  most  pernicious  habits. 
The  vigilant  teacher  does  not  seem  to  notice  a  thousand 
little  faults,  but  when  attention  has  once  been  called  to 
a  fault,  he  must  never  let  it  recur  again  without  re- 
proof. 

4.  Will  Power.     This  is  the  force  which  moves  the 
world.     To  succeed  in  anything  there  must  be  iron  in 
the  soul.     Management  must  be  uniform  and  certain. 
System   must   be     strictly    enforced.      The    determined 
teacher  will  train  to  orderly  habits  and  efficient  work. 
Kindness  should  temper  firmness,  but  never  displace  it. 

5.  Self-control.     This  is  one  of  the  cardinal  virtues 
we  must  instill  into  the  mind,  and  it  cannot  be  so  effec- 
tively taught  as  by  example.     The  great  generals  and 
statesmen  have  been  men  who  could  remain  calm  under 
adverse  circumstances.     The  teacher  who  loses  his  self- 
possession  and  speaks  in  tones  of  trembling  anger,   is 
far  below  the  ideal  teacher,  and  loses  the  respect  of  think- 
ing pupils.     He  must  repress  impatience.     To  yield  to 
it  is  ruin. 

Wesley's  mother  is  said  to  have  told  him  the  same 
thing  twenty  times,  and  many  of  our  pupils  are  little 
Wesleys.  The  teacher  must  suppress  all  antagonism  be- 
tween himself  and  his  pupils  or  patrons.  He  can  do 
this  if  he  has  proper  control  of  himself.  Cheerfulness  is 


GOVERNING   POWER   IN   THE    TEACHER         83 

an  electric  power,  and  nothing  is  a  greater  aid  to  self- 
control  or  to  the  control  of  wayward  pupils  than  cheer- 
fulness. Cultivate  it,  and  never  under  any  circumstances 
let  pupils  know  they  can  annoy  you. 

6.  Self-confidence.     This   is   a   potent   power.      The 
world  stands  aside  to  let  him  pass  who  knows  whither 
he  is  going.     By  self-confidence  I  do  not  mean  egotism. 
Confidence  in  your  own  power  to  meet  the  emergency 
when  this  emergency  comes,  prevents  worry.     It  gains 
the  confidence  of  pupils.    Have  confidence  in  your  pupils. 
Trust  them,  and  they  will  seldom  betray  your  trust. 

7.  Good  Judgment.     Good   judgment  in  administer- 
ing punishment  is  a  strong  point  in  school  government. 
The  object  of  punishment  is  to  lead  the  pupil  to  see  and 
feel  his  fault  and  to  strive  to  correct  it.     The  stronger 
the  teacher  is  in  other  elements  of  governing  power,  the 
less  frequent  will  he  have  to  punish.    Injudicious  punish- 
ment makes  pupils  disrespect  the  teacher,  while  proper 
punishment  should  increase  the  pupils'  love  and  respect 
for  him. 

8.  Culture.    This  is  a  powerful  agency  in  government. 
It  includes  not  only  the  culture  of  the  mind,  but  the 
culture  of  manners  and  of  the  voice  as  well.     Thorough 
scholarship  is  indispensable,  but  proper  manners  are  also 
essential  to  success.    Very  often  the  best  of  teachers  are 
rendered   incompetent  by   eccentricities   of  manner   and 
dress.    The  voice  is  a  most  potent  factor  in  the  govern- 
ment of  pupils.     A  well-modulated  voice,  musical  tones, 
and  proper  emphasis  hold  pupils  and  quiet  them,  while 
sharp,  gutteral  tones  excite  to  misconduct. 

p.  Love.     The  teacher  who  does  not  have  a  genuine 
love  for  children  and  young  people  should  quit  the  school- 


84  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

room,  and  do  it  promptly.  Love  wins  love.  It  wins 
pupils  and  patrons,  but  it  must  be  genuine.  When  com- 
bined with  judicious  executive  ability,  it  will  govern  a 
school  better  than  all  the  arbitrary  rules  which  could  be 
enumerated. 

The  cold,  despotic  teacher  may  enforce  quiet  and 
compel  pupils  to  get  good  lessons,  but  his  tyranny  creates 
an  atmosphere  in  which  all  hateful  passions  are  fostered. 

10.  Teaching  Power.  This  enables  the  teacher  to 
enlist  and  direct  all  the  energies  of  the  pupil.  A  small 
per  cent,  of  good  scholars  are  good  teachers.  To  teach 
is  to  arouse,  to  interest,  to  direct,  and  to  cause  to  know. 
Good  teachers  magnetize  pupils  and  make  them  desire 
to  study.  Earnest  work  makes  it  easy  to  maintain  order. 

The  teacher  who  will  study  his  defects,  and  try  to 
strengthen  his  weak  points,  may  learn  to  govern.  It 
requires  tact,  common  sense,  skill,  and  a  persistent  effort 
to  grow  strong  in  the  power  to  govern  a  school,  but  it 
can  be  done. 


XIV.     SCHOOL  REGULATIONS 

As  system  is  the  first  element  of  governing  power 
in  the  teacher,  so  it  is  the  first  condition  of  good  govern- 
ment. The  old-time  schoolmaster  was  all  rules  and 
rod.  He  made  a  list  of  the  offenses  and  the  penalties. 
These  are  of  the  past,  but  we  must  not  go  to  the  other 
extreme.  Some  regulations  are  necessary,  and  are  based 
upon  sound  principles. 

1.  Rules  should  be  few.     The  test  of  a  rule  should 
be  its  reasonableness  in  securing  the  ultimate  purpose  of 
a  school  —  obedient,  happy,  intelligent  citizens. 

2.  Rules  should  be  general  and  such  as  apply  to  all 
pupils.    Special  penalties  should  be  rare. 

3.  The  regulations  of  a  school  should  be  so  rational 
that  they  will  command  the  hearty  support  of  teachers, 
pupils,  and  patrons.     The  teacher  must  take  account  of 
his  surroundings.     Rules  of  ever  so  much  importance  in 
a  Boston  school  might  not  meet  the  conditions  of  a  school 
in  New  Mexico.     All  rules  must  be  practicable,  or  they 
are  worse  than  useless. 

4.  All  school  regulations  should  be  educational,  and 
tend  to  form  right  habits.     If  the  school  is  to  train  for 
life,  its  regulations  should  instil  right  habits. 

5.  School  regulations  should  be  positive.     The  rules 
formerly  were  a  list  of  "  Thou  shalt  nots."     Far  better 
and  far  more  effective  would  be  a  list  of  judicious  and 
well-enforced   "Thou   shalts." 

85 


86  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

Upon  these  principles  are  based  a  few  regulations 
accepted  by  all  good  teachers  and  lying  at  the  very  foun- 
dation of  a  successful  school.  They  are  (i)  regularity, 
(2)  promptness,  (3)  proper  decorum,  (4)  quietness  — 
not  death-like  stillness,  (5)  communication  made  through 
the  teacher,  (6)  morality.  These  virtues  instilled  in  the 
life  of  pupils  will  bear  fruit,  and  bring  a  bountiful  harvest 
from  the  sowing  of  the  school-room. 

The  regulations  enumerated  are  the  fruit  of  expe- 
rience in  the  school-room.  They  must  be  enforced  if  the 
school  is  to  be  near  the  ideal.  Cheerful  obedience  is  the 
object  to  be  sought,  but  obedience  at  any  price. 

1.  Irregularity  is  one  of  the  most  serious  evils.     It 
is  the  every-day  work  which  counts.     Make  the  school 
attractive.    Make  the  pupils  feel  that  each  day  is  of  great 
value.     Teach  well.     Interest  parents.     Show  them  how 
it  is  that  irregular  pupils  become  discouraged  because 
they  get  behind.    Urge  regularity  as  a  duty,  and  if  pupils 
are  irregular  simply  from  indolence,  punish  as  you  would 
for  any  other  thing  detrimental  to  school  work. 

2.  Promptness.     Let   the   teacher   set   the    example. 
He  should  be  at  school  at  least  half  an  hour  before  time 
to  begin.     Train  to  habits  of  promptness.     Enforce  it 
in  all  school  matters  until  the  habit  is  formed.    Use  good 
judgment.      There   are   exceptional    cases    where   pupils 
cannot  be  on  time. 

j.  Decorum.  Positions,  movements,  dress,  manners, 
and  conduct  must  be  considered.  In  all  these  the  teacher 
should  be  the  model.  The  real  worth  and  power  of  a 
teacher  may  be  judged  more  from  the  decorum  of  the 
pupils  than  from  any  other  one  thing. 


SCHOOL  REGULATIONS  87 

4.  Quietness.  Be  quiet  yourself,  and  then  make  quiet- 
ness imperative.     Many   schools   are  noisy  because  the 
teachers  are  fussy,  noisy,  and  boisterous.     Talk  in  low, 
even  tones,  move  quietly,  and  avoid  all  clapping,  pound- 
ing, or  heavy  walking.     Secure  quietness  from  principle 
rather  than  from  fear.     The  best  test  is  the  conduct  of 
the  pupils  when  the  teacher  leaves  the  room.     We  often 
find  teachers  who  enforce  a  death-like  stillness  in  the 
room,  but  if  they  chance  to  leave  the  room  for  a  few 
minutes,   pandemonium   reigns.      Never  permit   boister- 
ousness  in  the  school-room  at  any  time.     Much  of  the 
noise   in   the   school-room  has   its  birth   in   racing  and 
boisterousness  at  recess  and  before  school.    Train  pupils 
to  think  of  the  school-room  as  a  busy  workshop  where 
all  is  order  and  decorum.     Some  may  require  punish- 
ment ;  if  so,  be  mild  and  gentle,  but  punish  as  for  any 
other  offense. 

5.  Communication.     Three  fourths  of  the  worry  of 
the  school-room  will  be  avoided  if  all  communications 
are  made  through  the  teacher.     Be  firm  from  the  first 
day.    Appeal  to  principle,  say  "  No  "  firmly.     Anticipate 
and  prevent.     Seat  pupils  where  they  will  have  the  most 
favorable   influences.      Train   pupils   to  habits   of   non- 
communication.    Inflict  proper  punishment,  and  see  to 
it  at  all  hazards  that  there  is  no  communication,  and  all 
will  run  well. 

6.  Morality.    This  is  the  most  important  lesson  taught 
in  school.     The  teacher  should  be  the  very  embodiment 
of  morality.     His  impulses  must  be  pure  and  elevating. 
His  character  must  be  such  that  it  will  instill  into  the 
pupils  a  love   of  right  and  a  hatred  of  wrong.     The 
teacher  must  be  positive  also  in  his  teaching  of  morality. 


88  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

Attack  one  vice  at  a  time,  and  turn  your  attention  to 
it  until  it  is  broken  up.  Then  attack  another.  Teach 
pupils  to  be  truthful.  Appeal  to  conscience.  Morality 
has  its  basis  in  the  conscience  of  the  individual.  You 
have  not  taught  the  child  to  be  moral  until  his  con- 
science cries  out  distinctly,  "  /  ought/'  Conscience  is  a 
rational  motive,  and  impels  us  to  do  what  we  think  is 
right,  and  forbids  us  to  do  what  we  think  is  wrong. 

"  An  approving  conscience  is  the  smile  of  God ;  re- 
morse, his  frown."  Sincerity  should  characterize  every 
act  of  the  teacher.  Honesty,  purity,  and  justice  should 
run  through  his  whole  make-up.  Any  system  of  instruc- 
tion which  stops  short  of  a  virtuous  character  in  the  indi- 
vidual is  a  failure.  To  produce  intelligent,  conscientious 
men  —  men  in  whom  appetite,  passion,  selfishness,  and 
weakness  yield  to  the  mandates  of  conscience  —  is  the 
grand  end  of  education.  Let  us  look  carefully  to  our 
teaching,  that  it  tends  to  this  high  aim. 


XV.     SCHOOL  PUNISHMENT 

THERE  is  a  difference  in  the  purposes  of  punishment 
in  the  school-room  and  in  the  state.  In  the  school-room 
punishment  seeks  to  correct  and  to  reform  the  individual. 
The  state  may  punish  to  avenge  a  wrong,  to  satisfy  jus- 
tice, or  to  serve  as  arj  example  to  others.  The  school 
deals  with  immature  minds  and  irresponsible  beings ;  the 
state  deals  with  mature  minds  and  responsible  beings, 
capable  of  weighing  and  judging. 

By  punishment  we  mean  a  penalty  imposed  by  some 
one  in  authority  for  some  wrong  act.  The  penalty  may 
be  mental  or  physical.  Physical  punishment  may  be  used 
upon  children  when  other  means  fail,  or  when  the  child 
is  still  undeveloped  in  judgment.  Parents  must,  as  a 
rule,  occasionally  use  physical  punishment  as  a  means 
of  correcting  their  children  because  they  are  lacking  in 
the  judgment  of  riper  years  and  yet  must  be  taught 
to  mind. 

The  greatest  punishment  is  that  which  touches  the 
soul.  Physical  pain  is  temporary,  but  mental  pain  may 
last  for  a  lifetime.  There  are  wounds  deeper  than  any 
rod  can  inflict,  wounds  which  do  not  heal,  the  wounds 
of  sarcasm,  suspicion,  treachery,  and  misconception. 
Teachers  must  guard  themselves  against  these  deeper 
punishments,  unjustly  administered,  which  will  rankle 
in  the  bosom  of  the  child  throughout  life. 

The  subject  of  punishment  is  one  of  importance.  No 
teacher  should  teach  school  without  having  given  much 
thought  to  it.  He  cannot  plan  in  advance  just  what  to 

89 


90  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

do  and  how  to  act  upon  a  given  occasion.  However,  he 
may  study  the  principles  of  the  subject  in  general,  and 
then  the  details  will  be  more  easily  and  more  intelligently 
applied.  What  punishments  to  inflict,  when  to  punish, 
and  how  to  punish,  are  questions  of  vital  importance. 
The  following  principles  should  guide  in  punishment :  — 

j.  Punishments  should  be  reformatory  and  never 
vindictive.  Punishments  should  be  for  the  benefit  of  the 
one  punished.  Even  in  the  state  there  is  a  growing  ten- 
dency to  make  punishments  more  and  more  reformatory 
and  less  vindictive.  In  school  the  good  of  the  individual 
punished  should  be  the  paramount  consideration. 

2.  Punishment  should  always  foster  self-control  and 
self-respect.  Self-government  alone  is  worthy  of  an  in- 
telligent man.  The  punishment  which  does  not  stimulate 
the  wrong-doer  to  forsake  the  wrong  and  do  the  right,  is 
a  failure.  Any  punishment  which  crushes  manhood  is 
fiendish. 

j.  Punishment  should  be  the  natural  consequence  of 
the  offense.  Such  punishments  are  corrective.  The  re- 
lation of  the  punishment  to  the  offense  should  be  studied 
carefully  before  it  is  administered. 

4.  Punishments  must  always  be  reasonable,  but  cer- 
tain.    Punishments  which  are  too  severe  arouse  sym- 
pathy for  the  one  punished,  and  lose  much  of  their  good 
effect.     Mild  punishments  are  most  effective  if  they  are 
certain  to  follow  wrong  doing. 

5.  Punishments  should  be  inflicted  deliberately.    Hasty 
punishments    are    seldom    effective.      Both    teacher    and 
pupil    should   have   time    for   reflection,    when    possible. 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENT  91 

There  may  be  times  of  open  insult  when  punishments 
must  be  prompt  to  be  effective,  but  with  wise  management 
such  occasions  are  rare.  Parents  and  teachers  must 
guard  against  rash  and  hasty  punishments. 

6.  The  teacher  must  punish  with  regret.     Sympathy 
for  the  offender  adds  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  punish- 
ment,  provided  the   sympathy   is   not  of   the   sort   that 
excuses  rather  than  punishes.     The  child  knows  when 
the  teacher  suffers  for  and  with  him,  and  this  is  one 
of  the  uplifting  forces  in  the  child's  life.     It  is  true  that 
the  principle  of  vicarious   suffering  is  the   root  of  all 
spiritual  healing. 

7.  All    punishment    should    be    made    an    educative 
means.     It  should  be  at  all  times  corrective.     It  should 
bring  the  pupil  to  a  sense  of  wrong  doing,  else  it  is 
worthless.     The   severest  punishment  is   without  effect 
unless  the  pupil  feels  deep  down  in  his  own  conscious- 
ness that  he  has  done  wrong.     Every  punishment  must 
be  a  means  to  an  end,  the  end  being  an  improvement  in 
the  pupil's  conduct. 

Bentham  has  clearly  stated   some  of  the  principles 
pertaining  to  punishment  as  follows: — 

1 i )  "  The  punishment  following  an  offense  should 
exceed  the  apparent  advantage  derived  from  its  being 
committed." 

(2)  "  The  greater  the  offense,  the  greater  should  be 
the  pains  taken  to  secure  its  punishments." 

(3)  "  Punishment  should  never  be  greater  than  is 
needed  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the  offense." 

(4)  "  Regard  should  be  paid  to  the  sensibility  of  the 
offender,  as  dependent  on  age,  sex,  position,  health,  etc." 


92  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

(5)  "  Punishments  should  be  increased  in  magnitude 
as  the  detection  of  the  offense  is  uncertain  or  remote." 

(6)  "  When  the  offense  is  not  an  isolated  act,  but  an 
act  indicating  the  existence  of  a  habit,  the  punishment 
should  outweigh  the  apparent  advantages,  not  merely  of 
the  act,  but  of  the  habit." 

A  judicious  punishment  is  one  which  tends  to 
strengthen  in  the  child  a  love  for  right  and  a  hatred  for 
wrong.  Punishments  must  consider  many  things.  What 
is  effective  with  one  may  fail  with  another.  The  teach- 
er's judgment  of  human  nature  must  direct  what  pun- 
ishment will  be  effective  in  a  given  case.  Among  the 
most  effective  punishments  may  be  named, — 

j.  Reproof.  This  will  correct  a  majority  of  offenses. 
The  earnestness  of  the  teacher  gives  weight  to  the  re- 
proof. When  similar  offenses  have  been  committed  by 
several  pupils,  the  teacher  may  reprove  in  a  general  way 
without  mentioning  names.  If  it  is  an  individual  or  a 
few  individuals  and  of  a  nature  that  it  does  not  affect 
the  school  as  a  whole,  private  reproof  is  best.  In  nearly 
all  cases  a  short  talk  in  private  will  be  effective.  The  oc- 
casion may  arise  when  the  reproof  must  be  administered 
before  the  school.  In  such  cases  the  teacher  must  not 
mistake  the  individual,  and  must  be  judicious,  else  un- 
pleasant scenes  may  take  place. 

2.  Privation.  After  reproof,  this  is  perhaps  the  next 
best  punishment.  This  should  follow  as  a  natural  con- 
sequence of  the  offense.  The  pupil  is  to  be  deprived  of 
the  thing  or  the  liberty  which  he  has  abused.  It  may  be 
a  seat,  the  recess,  a  recitation,  a  class  position,  or  certain 
privileges. 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENT  93 

j.  Deportment  Records.  Monthly  reports  are  pow- 
erful levers  for  right  conduct  as  well  as  for  good  work. 
We  speak  of  their  use,  and  not  of  their  abuse.  The 
monthly  report  should  give  the  teacher's  careful  and 
honest  estimate  of  the  pupil's  work  and  conduct.  With 
the  good  teacher  no  force  is  more  potent  for  right  be- 
havior. It  is  an  open  estimate  each  month  wherein  the 
pupil  may  read  his  conduct  as  the  teacher  sees  it. 

4.  Suspension.    In  nearly  all  cases  reproof  and  priva- 
tion are  all  the  punishments  needed  in  school.     Occa- 
sionally suspension,  expulsion,  and  corporal  punishment 
must  be  resorted  to.    The  stronger  the  teacher,  the  more 
systematic  and  vigorous  the  government,  the  less  occa- 
sion  will  be   found   for   such   punishments.     When   the 
occasion  comes,  the  teacher  must  have  the  courage  to 
use  it.     Suspension  may  result  in  good  to  the  pupil  sus- 
pended as  well  as  to  the  school.     Good  judgment  must 
be  used  to  indicate  when  suspension  is  necessary,  and 
for  how  long  to  suspend,   and  how  the  pupil  may  be 
restored.      Among    the    causes  of  suspension    may    be 
named  insubordination,  gross  misconduct,  chronic  irreg- 
ularity without  just  cause,  little  offenses  continually  re- 
peated but  hard  to  classify,  and  general  worthlessness. 
The  school  is  a  workshop,  and  no  pupil  who  is  doing 
no  good  for  himself  must  be  permitted  to  ruin  a  school. 

5.  Expulsion.     In  rare  cases,  expulsion  is  necessary. 
This  is  the  act  of  the  board  of  education,  and  not  of 
the  teacher.     It  should  be  seldom  necessary.     A  frank 
talk  to  the  parents  by  the  teacher,  after  all  hope  of  re- 
forming the  pupil  has  vanished,  will  usually  secure  the 
withdrawal  of  the  pupil  without  the  formal  act  of  ex- 
pulsion.    The  school  board  should  sustain  the  authority 


94  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

of  the  teacher  in  all  right  rulings,  and  the  bully  who  per- 
sists in  annoying  the  school  should  be  dealt  with  effec- 
tively, even  if  it  leads  to  expulsion.  The  expulsion  of  a 
pupil  who  is  doing  no  good  in  school  is  far  better  than 
to  allow  the  pupil  to  waste  the  time  of  thirty  or  forty 
other  pupils. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  best  teach- 
ers seldom  find  bad  pupils. 

One  of  the  greatest  teachers  of  my  acquaintance,  after 
thirty  years'  experience  in  the  work  of  the  reform  school, 
during  which  time  his  work  and  influence  has  touched 
and  redeemed  hundreds  of  wayward  boys,  affirms  delib- 
erately that  there  are  no  bad  boys  if  we  know  how  to 
direct  their  energies.  Pupils  give  us  largely  what  we 
expect.  The  actions  of  many  teachers  are  so  contempt- 
ible that  pupils  are  almost  justified  in  being  bad.  They 
prowl  about  with  suspicion,  watching  pupils,  and  hunting 
trouble.  They  punish  without  reason.  They  constantly 
nag.  They  threaten,  they  bully,  they  seek  to  hurt  and 
ridicule  pupils.  The  little  boy  was  not  far  wrong,  who, 
upon  being  asked  why  the  teacher  punished  him,  replied, 
"  Because  he  was  the  biggest." 

Justice  does  not  demand  that  every  pupil  be  punished 
alike,  even  for  the  same  offense.  Lottie  and  Ford  were 
brother  and  sister.  Two  years'  experience  with  numer- 
ous trials  found  no  punishment,  mental  or  physical,  which 
affected  Ford  five  minutes.  For  laughing,  the  teacher 
pointed  his  finger  in  a  shaming  manner  at  Lottie,  and 
she  sobbed  bitterly  for  an  hour.  Had  both  committed 
the  same  offense,  would  the  same  punishment  have  been 
justifiable? 

Let  your  effort  be  to  discipline  with  the  least  possible 
punishment,  but  when  occasion  demands  and  nothing 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENT  95 

else  will  do,  punish,  even  to  severity.  Avoid  indignities, 
such  as  slapping  or  boxing  the  ears,  pulling  the  nose  or 
the  hair,  or  striking  the  head.  If  corporal  punishment 
must  be  inflicted,  use  a  switch,  a  strap,  or  a  small  paddle. 
Administer  it  slowly,  calmly,  quietly,  but  effectively. 
When  the  punishment  is  over,  do  not  dismiss  the  pupil 
until  you  have  talked  over  quietly  and  dispassionately  the 
offense  and  the  reason  for  the  punishment.  Most  pun- 
ishments fail  because  they  are  done  hastily  and  in  an- 
ger, and  then  pupils  are  dismissed  while  yet  white  with 
rage.  If  the  judge  sentenced  the  criminal  with  the  same 
degree  of  warmth  and  passion,  and  the  sheriff  executed 
the  sentence  with  the  haste  and  anger  many  teachers  show 
in  administering  punishment,  our  courts  would  be  less 
effective  than  they  are. 

The  best  teachers  govern  so  effectively  that  little  pun- 
ishment is  needed. 


XVI.    MOVEMENT   OF   CLASSES 

THE  larger  the  school,  the  more  red  tape  will  be  re- 
quired. Any  large  business  requires  system.  Red  tape 
should  never  be  used  for  its  own  sake.  Little  is  needed 
in  a  small  district  school  with  one  teacher,  but  in  graded 
schools  with  several  teachers  some  of  it  is  necessary.  In 
fact,  no  school  can  get  along  without  some  of  it.  How 
much?  This  question  can  be  answered  by  any  teacher 
by  referring  to  the  principle  that  the  purpose  of  school 
management  is  to  bring  the  mind  of  the  teacher  and  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  into  the  closest  possible  contact. 

More  teachers  fail  in  management  than  in  the  teach- 
ing process.  System  and  order  in  management  aid  the 
teaching  process.  Tyranny  in  the  school-room  is  to  be 
avoided  always,  but  of  the  two  evils  tyranny  is  pref- 
erable to  anarchy. 

I  once  knew  a  teacher  —  a  graduate  of  a  famous 
normal  school  —  in  whose  school-room  chaos  ruled  su- 
preme. Pupils  rushed  into  the  room,  talking,  laughing, 
boxing,  jumping,  and  were  never  quiet.  When  classes 
were  called,  pupils  raced  and  crowded,  to  get  to  certain 
favorite  places.  As  one  class  was  dismissed,  the  next 
class  came  rushing  into  the  recitation  seat,  all  talking, 
crowding,  rushing,  pell-mell,  hurry-scurry.  To  observe 
it  without  considering  the  serious  side,  nothing  could  be 
more  ludicrous.  Pupils  frequently  climbed  over  the  back 
of  the  recitation  seat.  Half  a  dozen  pupils  would  come  to 
ask  the  teacher  about  this  and  that  while  he  was  hearing 
a  recitation.  Such  a  teacher  might  get  results  in  a 

96 


MOVEMENT  OF  CLASSES  97 

small  district  school  where  he  did  not  have  to  work  in 
harmony  with  other  teachers,  but  even  then  the  results 
must  be  meager  compared  with  what  they  would  be  un- 
der normal  conditions.  In  a  district  school,  if  a  recess 
is  not  on  time,  the  chances  are  that  few  of  the  pupils 
will  know  it,  but  where  there  are  other  teachers,  all  must 
work  on  schedule  time. 

The  rules  of  school  should  be  based  upon  princi- 
ples, always  remembering  that  there  should  be  but  few 
rules,  and  that  these  should  be  rigidly  enforced. 

1.  Rules  must  be  uniform.     In  a  school  with  more 
than  one  teacher,  most  regulations  must  be  uniform.    Let 
the  teacher  of  one  room  be  lax  in  government,  and  it 
affects  the  whole  school  organization.     Pupils  are  quick 
to  notice  differences,  and  if  one  teacher  permits  certain 
conduct  and  another  does  not,  the  pupils  of  the  latter  are 
apt  to  think  they  are  unjustly  treated.     There  must  be 
unity   in   enforcing   many   necessary   regulations   or  the 
school  will  suffer. 

2.  Rules  must  be  necessary.    Nothing  for  show  alone. 
However,  some  things  which  may  seem  mere  show  to 
the  outsider  are  of  great  help  to  school  government.    For 
example,   absolute  quiet  just  before   dismissing  with  a 
quiet,  orderly  leaving  of  the  school  grounds  in  the  after- 
noon, is  a  great  step  toward  controlling  a  school.     It 
seems  to  be  a  tonic  which  stimulates  the  better  nature 
of  the  pupils,  and  sends  them  home  in  a  better  mood. 
If  possible,  let  pupils  leave  school  feeling  happy. 

j.  All  signals  must  be  definite.  There  should  be  few 
signals,  but  each  signal  should  indicate  a  definite  move- 
ment. 


98  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

4.  Tone  of  voice.     Signals  should  be  given  in  a  fall- 
ing inflection,   and  the  movements   should  be   executed 
quickly  and  quietly.     Voice  has  much  to  do  with  gov- 
erning a   school.      Commands   should   be   given   gently, 
firmly,  and  the  teacher  from  the  very  depths  of  his  soul 
must  expect  his  commands  to  be  obeyed.      Loud  com- 
mands or  those  given  in  the   form  of  questions,  as  if 
the  teacher  doubted  whether  they  would  be  obeyed  or 
not,  are  disorder  breeders.      Movements  should  promptly 
follow  a  command,  and  these  movements  should  be  quiet 
and   orderly.       However,    extremes    should   be   avoided. 
Pupils  should  be  taught  to  walk  quietly  but  naturally. 
It  is  unnecessary  for  them  to  walk  on  tiptoe.      What  is 
more  comical,  and  at  the  same  time  more  distressing,  than 
to  see  a  large,  overgrown,  awkward  boy,   a  boy  who 
would   not   under   any   circumstances   knowingly   annoy 
a  teacher,   cross   the   floor  with  a  motion   similar  to   a 
gimlet  going  through  a  board. 

5.  Signals    should    precede    class    movements.      No 
movements  of  classes  should  be  permitted  until  the  proper 
signals  have  been  given.     This  is  necessary  or  confusion 
follows.      Time  must  be  given  for  the  execution  of  the 
movement  before  the  next  signal   is  given.      Teachers 
often,   when  time  is  short,  give  the   signals,   "  Ready," 
"  Rise/'  "  Pass,"  so  rapidly  that  the  class  cannot  pos- 
sibly  execute   them,   and    the    result    is    disorganizing. 
Never  permit  disobedience,  carelessness,  or  slovenliness. 
One  pupil  may  soon  disorganize  a  class. 

Now  let  us  apply  these  principles  to  the  movements 
in  the  school-room. 

i.  Ringing  the  bell.  This  should  be  done  by  the 
teacher,  the  principal  of  a  graded  school,  or  the  janitor. 


MOVEMENT  OF  CLASSES  99 

CAUJNG  SCHOOL. 

Two  or  three  taps  of  the  bell,  if  it  be  a  large  bell,  or  a 
vigorous  ring  of  the  hand  bell,  means  that  all  play  must 
stop,  and  that  pupils  are  to  arrange  in  lines  preparatory 
to  passing  to  the  room.  This  should  be  done  promptly, 
and  when  formed  and  all  is  quiet,  at  a  signal  tap  of  the 
bell  the  lines  pass  quietly  and  orderly  to  the  rooms.  Give 
time  between  the  ringing  of  the  first  bell  and  the  tap 
of  the  bell  for  the  lines  to  pass,  for  all  the  pupils  to  as- 
semble. Do  not  permit  lagging.  Do  not  ring  a  tardy 
bell.  It  only  encourages  pupils  to  lag  behind  until  the 
last  chance. 

2.  Attention.  When  pupils  are  seated  quietly,  at  tap 
of  call-bell  or  pencil  the  attention  of  the  pupils  is  di- 
rected to  the  opening  exercises  or  the  work  of  the  day. 
Do  not  demand  attention,  but  expect  it,  and  so  conduct 
yourself  that  you  will  receive  it.  The  governing  power 
of  a  teacher  may  be  correctly  judged  by  observing  the 
calling  of  school  and  the  opening  exercises. 

DISMISSING  SCHOOL. 

Nothing  is  better  in  its  general  effects  upon  a  school 
than  order  in  dismissing  it.  It  is  the  dessert  or  pastry 
which  follows  the  meal,  and  leaves  a  pleasant  flavor  of 
the  day's  work. 

1.  Let  all  books  be  placed  in  the  desk  quietly  and 
orderly  at  a  given  signal.     See  that  all  scraps  of  paper, 
pencil  sharpenings,  etc.,  are  removed  from  the  desk  and 
floor. 

2.  Have  pupils  sit  erect  —  not  stiffly  —  and  give  re- 
spectful attention.     If  you  have  announcements  to  make, 
be  brief  and  to  the  point. 


100  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

3.  Never  hurry.      The  greatest  mistake  the  teacher 
can  make  is  to  hurry  and  dismiss  because  pupils  are  rest- 
less.     This  is  the  one  time  in  the  day  when  the  teacher 
has  the  decided  advantage  of  the  pupils,  and  he  can  afford 
to  be  deliberate.      From  first  to  last,  pupils  should  know 
that  quiet  and  order  precedes  dismission. 

4.  Let   pupils   march   quietly   and   orderly    from   the 
buildings  and  grounds. 

CAIJJNG  AND  DISMISSING  CLASSES. 

Many  teachers  use  the  signals  "  One,"  "  Two," 
"  Three/'  for  calling  and  dismissing  classes,  some  use 
the  call-bell,  and  some  use  "  Ready,"  "  Rise,"  "  Pass." 
Whatever  is  used  should  be  used  rigidly,  and  every  sig- 
nal should  be  obeyed. 

1.  ff  One."     The  class  get  ready.      Until  the  pupils 
are  familiar  with  the  program,  the  teacher  may  name  the 
class  before  giving  the  signal. 

2.  "  Two."      The    class    stand    with    the    necessary 
books  and  papers   for  the   recitation. 

3.  "  Three!'     The  class   pass  orderly  to  the   recita- 
tion seat  and  when  all  are  ready  they  are  seated.      Let 
them  be  seated  in  recitation  in  the  order  in  which  they 
came  from  their  seats.      This  avoids  confusion  and  en- 
ables the  teacher  usually  to  separate  two  chums  or  con- 
genial spirits,  and  this  may  add  much  to  the  value  of  the 
recitation. 

Let  the  teacher  be  the  example  in  system,  order,  and 
neatness.  It  requires  only  clear  ideals  of  what  to  do 
and  persistent  efforts  to  enforce  these.  He  must  know 
what  to  do,  why  he  does  it,  and  then  have  grit  enough 
to  see  that  it  is  done.  But  it  pays.  It  will  save  nerve 


MOVEMENT  OF  CLASSES  101 

force,  it  will  save  worry.  It  will  bring  a  feeling  of  satis- 
faction, of  work  well  done.  It  will  train  pupils  into  good 
habits,  and  bring  the  best  of  results,  both  mentally  and 
morally. 


XVII.     BASIC   PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

THE  principles  of  teaching  are  based  upon, — 

1.  The  nature  of  mind. 

2.  The  nature  of  knowledge. 

3.  The  nature  of  instruction. 

These  principles,  stated  as  they  may  be  in  a  variety 
of  ways,  underlie  all  good  teaching,  and  are  applicable  to 
any  subject.  The  teacher  will  find  that  nothing  is  a  better 
regulator  or  safety-valve  to  his  teaching  than  a  frequent 
reference  of  his  methods  and  devices  back  to  first  prin- 
ciples. Let  him  often  catechize  himself,  "  Why  do  I  do 
this  ?  "  "  Why  do  I  do  this  in  this  way  ?  "  "  How 
could  I  justify  this  or  that  way  of  doing  a  thing ?"  "  Is 
this  or  that  the  best  method,  and  why  ?  "  "  Why  was 
it  John  could  not  understand  that  problem  ?  "  Very  of- 
ten, when  the  teacher  questions  himself  carefully  and 
honestly,  he  will  improve,  and  in  a  short  time  get  better 
results.  Let  us  formulate  some  of  these  principles  under 
the  headings  given  above. 

PRINCIPLES   BASED   UPON   THE   NATURE  OF   MIND. 

i.  Culture  is  the  primary  object  of  teaching.  Cul- 
ture is  the  result  of  mental  discipline,  and  is  of  more 
value  than  knowledge.  It  gives  the  power  to  acquire 
knowledge,  and  this  power  is  worth  more  to  us  than  the 
knowledge  we  have  already  acquired.  It  gives  also  the 
power  to  originate  other  knowledge,  and  to  invent  new 
ideas  and  thoughts.  Without  culture  the  mind  is  a  re- 
ceptacle into  which  may  be  thrown  thoughts  and  ideas ; 
with  culture  these  may  be  arranged  and  transformed  into 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING  103 

active  energy.  Knowledge  will  make  a  learned  man, 
but  culture  alone  can  make  a  wise  man. 

The  teacher  should  never  lose  sight  of  this  primary 
object  of  teaching.  It  is  not  the  solution  of  individual 
problems  of  arithmetic  that  we  seek,  nor  the  demonstra- 
tion of  certain  propositions  of  geometry.  Long  after 
the  rules  of  arithmetic  have  been  forgotten  and  long  after 
you  have  forgotten  certain  demonstrations  in  geometry 
and  scores  of  Latin  endings,  there  will  remain  a  resid- 
uum, a  power,  a  mental  discipline,  which  we  call  cul- 
ture, and  this  is  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  mere 
facts  themselves.  The  teacher  should  know  the  relation 
of  each  subject  of  study  to  the  mental  capacities  of  his 
pupils,  and  seek  to  make  each  subject  contribute  its  full 
share  to  the  culture  of  the  child.  A  neglect  of  this  duty 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  has  dwarfed  and  warped  and 
stunted  many  a  child's  mind  in  our  schools. 

2.  Exercise  is  the  fundamental  law  of  growth.  This 
law  is  as  true  of  mind  as  of  muscle.  The  arm  grows 
strong  through  exercise.  The  leg  of  the  pedestrian  ac- 
quires size  and  power  by  use.  Lack  of  exercise  makes 
flabby  muscles.  In  the  same  way  every  faculty  of  the 
mind  is  developed  and  strengthened  by  exercise.  The 
power  of  perception  grows  by  exercise  in  perceiving;  the 
power  of  memory,  by  remembering;  the  power  of 
thought,  by  thinking,  etc.  Let  the  powers  of  mind  go 
unused,  and  mental  'flabbiness  will  result  as  quickly  as 
muscular  flabbiness  when  the  muscles  are  not  exercised. 
The  unused  mind  is  unfit  for  prolonged  effort.  It  soon 
rusts  mentally,  and  becomes  worthless.  Thousands  of 
minds  rust  out  from  idleness,  inaction,  and  want  of  use ; 
the  mind  never  wears  out  from  use  as  long  as  the 
physical  man  is  in  good  health. 


104  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

j.  The  perceptive  powers  are  the  doors  to  the  child's 
mind,  and  must  be  kept  open.  These  powers  are  most 
active  in  childhood.  All  mental  activity  has  its  begin- 
nings in  the  senses.  The  child  lives  in  its  eyes,  its  ears, 
and  its  ringers,  and  it  delights  to  see  and  to  hear  and 
to  feel.  Its  eyes  and  ears  are  open,  and  its  fingers  al- 
ways ready  for  mischief.  It  is  the  first  duty  of  the 
teacher  to  direct  this  activity,  and  to  give  food  to  the 
senses.  It  seeks  for  expression  in  actions  as  well  as 
in  words.  It  needs  objects  for  its  instruction,  and  facts 
rather  than  abstract  truths  for  mental  development.  It 
needs  to  see  and  feel  and  handle  objects  for  itself,  and 
later  it  will  have  the  taste  and  the  capacity  for  abstract 
thoughts ;  but  to  force  them  upon  it  now  is  to  cause 
the  worst  form  of  mental  dyspepsia. 

4.  The  child's  memory  for  facts  and  words  is  strong 
in  early  childhood.  This  fact  should  not  be  ignored  by 
the  teacher.  The  objects  come  to  the  mind  through  the 
senses  with  such  freshness  that  they  are  fixed  indelibly 
in  the  memory.  Words  and  facts  stick  in  the  child's 
mind  as  naturally  as  burrs  to  the  sheep's  coat.  Its  mem- 
ory for  words  and  things  is  wonderful.  A  little  girl 
four  years  old,  the  daughter  of  a  college  professor,  uses 
such  words  as  "  examination,"  "  manuscript/'  "  labora- 
tory," etc.,  correctly  and  with  ease.  Seated  at  the  table 
one  cloudy  afternoon,  the  sun  suddenly  broke  through 
the  clouds,  and  gilded  the  room.  Her  father  quoted 
Tennyson's  beautiful  lines : — 

"  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 
And  snowy  summits  old  in  story; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes, 
And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory." 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING  105 

No  comment  followed.  Some  time  later  the  sun 
shone  out  again  in  much  the  same  way,  and  Esther  quoted 
the  lines  accurately.  A  new  word  once  distinctly  heard 
is  apt  to  be  a  permanent  possession.  A  child  will  soon 
learn  to  talk  in  several  languages  if  it  associates  with 
children  who  speak  different  languages.  The  teacher 
should  give  the  child  an  opportunity  to  store  its  mind 
early  with  facts  of  science  and  to  acquire  a  rich  and 
copious  vocabulary. 

5.  The  careful  training  of  the  memory  should  not  be 
neglected.      The  mind  works  according  to  mental  law  in 
retaining  and  recalling  knowledge.      It  ties  facts  and  in- 
cidents  together  —  unconsciously   perhaps,   but   strongly 
—  by  threads  of  association.     These  facts  are  made  into 
clusters  or  groups,  and  bound  into  a  unit  by  the  bands 
of  association.     The  teacher  should  understand  the  prin- 
cipal laws  of  association  —  the  law  of  similarity,  the  law 
of  contrast,  the  law  of  cause  and  effect,  and  the  law  of 
contiguity  in  time  and  place,  —  and  teach  pupils  to  link 
their  knowledge  together  by  these  chains.      He  will  find 
numerous   opportunities   and   find   them   in   all   subjects. 
In  geography  he  should  teach  the  children  to  associate 
similar  facts  about  cities  and  States.     In  history,  events 
may  be  associated  by  contiguity  of  time  and  place  as 
well  as  by  cause  and  effect.     All  the  knowledge  taught 
should  be  so  thoroughly  systematized  that  it  may  be  read- 
ily recalled  by  logical  or  topical  relations. 

6.  The  imagination  should  not  be  neglected.      This 
is   the   power  of   forming   ideal   creations,   and   is   very 
strong  in  childhood.      It  is  made  active  through  the  me- 
dium of  perception.      The  facts  perceived  by  the  senses 
stimulate  the  fancy  and  arouse  it  into  activity.    The  beau- 


106  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

ties  of  nature,  the  evening  sunset,  the  bending  blue  sky, 
and  the  broad  landscape  find  a  resting  place  in  the  mem- 
ory, and  lingering  there  these  forms  of  beauty  stimulate 
new  creations.  With  many  children,  fact  and  fancy 
become  so  interwoven  that  they  do  not  discriminate  be- 
tween the  two.  The  teacher  in  such  cases  should  train 
the  faculty  into  right  channels,  and  seek  to  develop  it 
into  healthy  and  normal  activity.  Often  children  are 
untruthful  from  being  unable  to  discriminate  between 
the  things  remembered  and  the  things  imagined,  and 
such  cases  need  the  careful  attention  of  both  parents 
and  teacher. 

7.  The  mind  of  the  child  should  be  led  from  concrete 
to  abstract  ideas.  The  child  mind  begins  with  the  con- 
crete. It  first  learns  objects  and  their  qualities,  and  its 
first  ideas  are  perceptions  of  things  it  can  see,  feel, 
hear,  and  taste.  These  ideas  are  not  abstracted  from, 
but  associated  with,  the  object  itself.  After  repeated 
occurrence  of  the  object  with  the  perception  together, 
it  begins  to  perceive  independently  of  the  object,  and 
thus  gradually  its  mind  rises  to  abstract  ideas.  From 
objects  it  gets  its  ideas  of  color,  from  hard  objects  it 
gets  its  idea  of  hardness,  from  the  kindness  of  friends 
and  parents  it  gets  its  ideas  of  affection  and  kindness. 
This  gradual  growth  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract 
should  be  carefully  watched  by  the  teacher  and  aided. 
He  must  be  careful  not  to  lift  the  child  into  abstractions 
too  soon,  nor  keep  him  too  long  on  the  concrete.  Con- 
crete examples  should  be  presented  first  in  the  pre- 
sentation of  any  subject,  and  the  teacher  should  know 
that  the  pupil  has  assimilated  these  before  he  pushes 
on  into  the  abstract.  One  of  the  ever-present  duties 
of  the  teacher  is  to  aid  the  pupil  from  things  to  thoughts. 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

8.  The  mind  grows  from  the  particular  to  the  general. 
The  first  idea  is  of  a  particular  object.  It  is  considerably 
later  before  it  reaches  the  general  notion.  The  child 
knows  its  own  dog  a  long  time  before  it  has  the  gen- 
eral notion  dog.  Bird  to  the  child  is  a  particular  bird ; 
kitty  is  a  particular  kitty;  horse  is  a  particular  horse. 
Gradually  it  rises  from  the  particular  object  to  the  gen- 
eral, from  a  percept  to  a  concept.  It  is  the  teacher's 
duty  during  the  school  life  of  the  child  to  watch  and 
aid  this  growth  in  every  way  possible.  It  marks  dis- 
tinctly the  class  of  person  and  the  mental  development. 
Our  great  organizers  are  men  who  can  grasp  the  gen- 
eral thoughts  and  see  great  principles  behind  particular 
things.  On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  must  not  force 
this  growth  before  the  child's  mind  is  ready  for  it.  To 
force  the  general  upon  the  child's  mind  before  it  is  pre- 
pared is  to  teach  words  only. 

p.  The  child  reasons  first  inductively  and  then  de- 
ductively. This  is  the  natural  law  of  mental  develop- 
ment. The  particular  facts  of  the  senses  are  the  child's 
first  thoughts,  and  from  these  it  rises  gradually  to  gen- 
eral truths.  After  the  mind  has  been  impressed  time 
after  time  and  through  induction  reached  a  number  of 
general  truths,  the  process  then  may  often  be  reversed, 
and  particular  truths  deduced  from  general  principles. 
The  mind  also  begins  to  apply  the  self-evident  truths 
or  axioms  to  the  thoughts  which  grow  out  of  them. 
This  order  of  development  of  the  mind  should  be  under- 
stood by  the  teacher,  and  his  work  of  teaching  done  ac- 
cordingly. He  should  especially  avoid  the  too  common 
error  of  introducing  deductive  reasoning  too  early. 

jo.  The  teacher  should  aid  the  child  in  obtaining  clear 
conceptions  of  intuitive  ideas  and  truths.  The  mental 


108  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

life  of  the  child  begins  in  the  senses,  and  its  first  ideas 
and  truths  are  those  which  pertain  to  the  material  world. 
Later  the  intuition  awakens  into  activity,  and  the  ideas 
and  truths  of  reason  begin  to  dawn.  Here  the  teacher, 
if  he  is  watchful,  may  help  the  child.  He  may  do  much 
to  develop  clear  conceptions  of  space,  time,  cause,  the 
true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good.  He  may  readily  make 
occasions  for  presenting  or  developing  these  ideas,  and 
aid  the  pupil  in  reaching  these  self-evident  truths  by  par- 
ticular examples  and  suitable  questions.  Some  of  the 
axioms  of  number  also  are  awakened  in  the  mind  quite 
early,  and  the  teacher  can  do  much  to  develop  them. 

PRINCIPLES  BASED  UPON  THE  NATURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

/.  The  second  object  of  teaching  is  to  impart  knowl- 
edge to  the  pupil.  The  educated  person  must  have  cer- 
tain knowledge.  While  the  power  of  acquisition  may 
be  the  primary  object  of  education,  it  is  impossible  to 
conceive  of  this  power  being  properly  developed  without 
having  stored  the  mind  with  many  useful  facts.  We 
could  not  think  of  a  child  mastering  the  subject  of  men- 
suration as  treated  in  our  arithmetics  without  having  in 
mind  certain  facts.  We  would  rightly  question  the 
teaching  of  United  States  history  if  pupils  could  not  tell 
us  something  of  Washington  and  Jefferson  and  Lincoln, 
and  of  Bunker  Hill  and  New  Orleans  and  Gettysburg. 

Knowing  how  to  think  may  stand  first,  but  it  will 
not  suffice.  There  must  be  certain  facts  and  knowledge 
in  mind  upon  which  the  thoughts  are  based.  The  sub- 
ject of  cramming  has  been  rightfully  condemned,  but  it  is 
the  abuse  of  it,  and  not  the  use,  which  should  be  con- 
demned. Every  well-ordered  mind,  every  educated  per- 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING  109 

son,  has  stores  of  facts  well  organized  and  assimilated, 
all  ready  for  use  at  any  time.  The  teacher  should  never 
neglect  to  fill  the  minds  of  the  pupils  with  the  facts  of 
history,  geography,  science,  language,  and  mathematics, 
—  suitable  facts,  logically  grouped,  —  and  hold  up  to 
them  high  ideals  of  scholarship  and  instil  into  them  by 
example  and  precept  an  ambition  for  wide  and  accurate 
learning. 

2,  Things  should  precede  words.  This  principle  is  in 
harmony  with  the  natural  development  of  knowledge. 
Objects  existed  long  before  words.  The  word  was  in- 
troduced to  designate  the  object.  The  genesis  of  knowl- 
edge should  be  the  order  of  imparting  knowledge,  and 
this  is  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  mental  development. 
The  teacher  often  violates  this  principle  by  having  pupils 
recite  words,  words,  nothing  but  words,  without  knowing 
what  they  mean.  How  often  pupils  commit  definition 
after  definition  without  the  slightest  understanding  of  their 
real  meaning.  Such  a  practice  is  decidedly  pernicious  in 
its  influence  on  the  mind.  It  leads  to  wrong  habits 
of  thought,  and  the  child  soon  learns  to  be  satisfied  with 
the  mere  symbols  of  ideas.  He  is  satisfied  with  the 
husk  instead  of  the  grain,  and  instead  of  a  healthy  de- 
sire for  knowledge  and  a  growing  understanding  his 
intellectual  powers  are  dwarfed,  and  he  is  disgusted  with 
the  effort  to  study. 

j.  Ideas  should  precede  truths.  This  law,  like  the 
last,  is  in  accord  with  the  natural  law  of  acquisition  and 
mental  development.  Ideas  exist  in  the  mind  before 
there  are  judgments  or  thoughts.  There  is  an  idea  of 
book  and  of  desk  in  the  mind  before  it  thinks  the  book 
is  on  the  desk.  In  arithmetic  and  geometry,  and  in  the 


110  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

other  sciences,  the  ideas  presented  in  the  definitions  are 
learned  before  the  truths  which  pertain  to  them.  Ideas 
are  the  product  of  perception  and  conception,  while 
thoughts  are  the  product  of  reason  and  judgment.  Per- 
ception and  conception  precede  reason  and  judgment, 
hence  these  laws  are  manifest  from  the  nature  of  mind. 
The  teacher  should  seek  to  fill  the  mind  with  ideas  both 
concrete  and  abstract,  and  then  to  teach  the  truths  which 
belong  to  them. 

4.  Particular  ideas  should  be  taught  before  general 
ideas.     This  principle   is   in  harmony   with  the   genesis 
of  knowledge  and  the  nature  of  mental  activity.     Our 
first  ideas  are  of  particular  objects.     These  we  derive 
through  the  senses.     Later  come  the  abstract  and  gen- 
eral notions  derived  from  the  understanding.     The  child 
has  the  idea  of  the  particular  house  before  it  has  con- 
ceived the  general  idea  house.     It  knows  several  partic- 
ular houses  before  it  reaches  the  general  of  a  class  of 
houses.    This  order  is  frequently  violated  in  the  teaching 
process.     We  seek  to  give  clear  general  ideas  when  the 
child  has  no  clear  particular  ideas.     We  ask  the  child 
to  remember  that  nearly  all  the  lakes  of  North  America  lie 
in  a  certain  line  when  he  has  no  conception  of  an  in- 
dividual lake.    One  of  the  best  teaching  mottoes  is,  "  Go 
from  the  particular  idea  to  the  general." 

5.  Facts  should  precede  principles.    Most  of  our  text- 
books   of    late    introduce    a    new    subject    inductively. 
When   we   have   called   up   what   the   child  knows,   and 
run  our  fingers,  as  it  were,  about  the  edges  of  its  knowl- 
edge,  we  know   where  we   stand.      So   when   the   facts 
stand  out  clearly,  then  we  may  bind  them  together  by 
principle. 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING  111 

A  fact  is  a  truth  in  the  realm  of  sense.  A  principle 
is  a  truth  in  the  realm  of  thought.  The  former  is  con- 
crete, the  latter  abstract ;  and  as  a  rule  the  concrete  should 
be  taught  first.  A  fact  is  derived  from  the  operation  of 
perception  or  judgment,  and  a  principle  is  the  product 
of  an  act  of  reasoning;  and  perception  should  precede 
judgment.  Facts  are  particular  truths,  principles  are 
general  truths ;  and  in  the  teaching  process,  particular 
truths  should  precede  general.  The  principles  of 
science  are  deduced  from  individual  facts.  In  teaching 
the  individual,  facts  should  be  taught  before  the  principles 
can  be  deduced.  To  reverse  the  process  is  to  destroy  the 
best  results  of  science  teaching. 

6.  In  the  teaching  of  the  physical  sciences,  cause 
should  precede  law.  Science  is  organized  or  classified 
knowledge.  This  knowledge  is  built  up  from  an  exam- 
ination of  the  individual  facts.  The  natural  method  of 
teaching  the  subjects  is  along  the  line  of  the  original 
development  of  the  subject.  In  our  mental  development 
the  cause  is  sought  before  the  laws.  One  of  the  first 
questions  of  the  child  is,  "  What  makes  that  ?  "  The 
order  of  inquiry  is,  "  What  is  it?  "  for  the  child ;  "  How 
is  it?  "  for  boys  and  girls ;  "  Why  is  it?  "  for  youth  ;  and 
"  Whence  is  it?  "  for  maturity.  Long  after  the  child  has 
satisfied  its  mind  as  to  what,  it  begins  to  question  the 
laws  which  control  the  facts. 

In  the  development  of  the  race,  also,  men  sought  the 
cause  of  physical  phenomena  before  the  laws.  Long, 
long  ago  men  searched  for  the  causes  of  phenomena  in 
natural  philosophy  and  in  astronomy,  being  satisfied  if 
they  found  the  mere  cause  while  the  discovery  of  the  laws 
or  even  the  search  for  them  is  of  comparatively  recent 


112  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

date.  Then  it  is  well  known  that  the  law  itself  is  often 
easily  reached  when  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  causes 
is  at  hand.  To  the  teacher  who  will  examine  the  subject 
it  will  be  plain  that  in  nearly  all  cases  good  pedagogy  will 
teach  the  cause  of  facts  before  the  laws  which  govern 
these  facts. 

7.  Scientific  classification  should  be  taught  after  an 
investigation  of  both  the  cause  and  the  law  of  physical 
phenomena.    This  law,  like  the  one  above,  is  in  harmony 
with  the  law  of  mental  growth  as  well  as  with  the  genesis 
of  knowledge  in  these   sciences.     The  mind  can  grasp 
facts,  principles,   and  laws  before   it   is   capable  of  the 
broad  and  inclusive  generalizations  of  nature,  some  of 
which  have  immortalized  our  great  scientists  of  recent 
years.     These  last  require  a  mental  grasp  and  breadth  of 
view  too  large  for  school-boys'  minds.     Here  again  we 
find  the  law  in  harmony  with  the  development  of  human 
knowledge.     The  profound  classifications  are  of  recent 
date,   while  the   facts  and   principles  have  been  known 
and  studied  for  centuries. 

8.  The  elements  of  the  inductive  sciences  should  be 
taught  before  the  deductive  sciences.     In  the  inductive 
sciences  the  elements  are  the  facts  and  phenomena.    Based 
upon  these,  reached  by  inductive  reasoning,  are  the  prin- 
ciples, laws,  causes,  and  systems  of  classification.     We 
acquire  the  facts  and  phenomena  through  perception,  and 
the  child  mind  may  readily  acquire  many  of  the  facts 
before  it  can  generalize  on  them.     These  come  naturally 
to  the  mind  before  the  ideas  of  the  deductive  sciences. 
However,  it  is  only  the  facts  and  the  elements  which 
should  precede  the  deductive  sciences,   for  it  is  harder 
for  the  mind  to  grasp  the  laws  and  causes  from  a  con- 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING  113 

sideration  of  a  number  of  individual  facts,  than  it  .is  to 
accept  a  general  law  and  from  this  law  deduce  a  number 
of  elementary  facts.  This  would  indicate  that  the  sim- 
ple elementary  facts  of  inductive  science,  but  only  these, 
should  be  taught  before  the  deductive  sciences. 

p.  A  deeper  or  more  formal  study  of  the  deductive 
sciences  then  should  precede  a  further  study  of  the  induc- 
tive. This  order  arises  from  knowledge  and  its  relation 
to  mind.  The  facts  of  the  inductive  sciences  are  presented 
to  the  mind  as  early  as  those  of  the  deductive,  but  the 
latter  are  more  easily  understood  by  the  immature  mind. 
The  judgments  in  mental  arithmetic  and  much  of  the  rea- 
soning in  geometry  are  more  easily  understood  than  the 
generalizations  of  botany  and  zoology.  Then  the  reason- 
ing in  mathematics  trains  the  mind  to  habits  of  logical 
activity.  In  the  evolution  of  the  race  the  principles 
of  mathematics  and  logic  were  discovered  and  devel- 
oped first;  and  the  order  of  race  development  is 
usually  a  safe  guide  to  the  development  of  the 
individual. 

JO.  Psychology  or  mental  science  should  be  studied 
after  the  physical  sciences.  It  is  more  abstract  and  re- 
quires more  maturity  of  thought  for  its  comprehension. 
The  mind  should  be  well  trained  before  it  is  able  to  inter- 
pret its  own  operations  and  processes.  The  habit  of  inter- 
pretation carried  to  the  extreme  with  young  persons  is 
apt  to  lead  to  morbidness  of  mind.  It  is  sometimes  well 
that  young  persons  are  not  conscious  of  all  the  workings 
of  the  mind,  for  like  digestion  it  often  works  best  when 
we  give  it  the  least  thought.  This  as  well  as  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  subject  would  place  it  late  in  the  school 
course. 


114  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

PRINCIPLES    BASED    UPON    THE    NATURE    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

7.  Instruction  in  the  primary  grades  should  proceed 
from  the  known  to  the  related  unknown.  The  teacher 
should  know  the  boundaries  and  limitations  of  the  child's 
knowledge,  and  then  he  knows  where  to  begin  with  new 
knowledge.  The  known  must  form  the  stepping-stones 
to  the  unknown.  We  interpret  the  new  knowledge  by 
relating  it  to  the  old.  The  law  of  apperception  is  a 
helpful  one  to  the  teacher,  and  perhaps  no  law  is  more 
often  violated.  The  child  should  begin  the  study  of  al- 
gebra by  relating  it  to  the  principles  of  arithmetic  with 
which  he  is  already  familiar.  The  more  closely  he  re- 
lates these,  the  more  firmly  will  he  grasp  the  new  subject. 
Most  of  the  higher  subjects  may  be  linked  to  the  ele- 
mentary, which  not  only  makes  sure  the  new  knowledge, 
but  reviews  and  fastens  more  firmly  the  old. 

2.  The  deductive  process  may  often  be  used  in  ad- 
vanced instruction.  That  is,  the  instruction  may  some- 
times proceed  from  the  unknown  to  the  known.  The 
child  may  sometimes  fix  in  memory  what  he  does  not  un- 
derstand and  afterward  get  a  clear  idea  of  it.  Each  of 
us  can  recall  where  things  long  remembered  may  sud- 
denly come  to  us  with  new  force  and  a  clearness  which 
make  us  wonder  why  we  did  not  see  them  before.  The 
war  on  the  "old  education  method"  was  not  so  much 
because  it  went  from  the  unknown  to  the  known  as  that 
it  failed  to  get  to  the  known.  An  hypothesis  is  often 
assumed  from  which  we  reason  to  known  facts,  and  thus 
establish  or  refute  the  hypothesis.  In  algebra  we  must 
often  trace  the  relation  from  the  unknown  to  the  known, 
and  the  same  is  true  in  geometry.  The  fault  is  not  so 
much  in  the  method  itself  as  in  its  execution  —  failing 
to  reason  to  the  known. 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING  115 

j.  Primary  instruction  must  begin  with  the  concrete. 
The  senses  are  the  gateways  to  the  mind.  Through 
them  and  them  alone  at  first  do  we  reach  the  mind.  In 
number  the  teacher  should  present  the  objects  first.  Pen- 
cils, pegs,  tooth-picks,  crayons,  marks,  cards,  papers,  small 
corn-stalks,  etc.,  will  answer  the  purpose.  Use  these,  and 
see  that  pupils  get  through  them  clear  concepts  of  num- 
ber in  the  abstract.  In  compound  numbers  make  sure 
that  pupils  get  correct  notions  of  pints,  quarts,  pounds, 
pecks,  bushels,  feet,  yards,  inches,  etc.,  by  using  these 
measures  until  the  children  have  formed,  correct  concepts 
of  their  size.  In  geography,  along  with  their  definitions 
of  capes,  bays,  isthmuses,  volcanoes,  etc.,  use  pictures  and 
drawings,  making  sure  that  pupils  understand  the  terms. 
If  primary  work  is  properly  done,  the  child  can  pass 
gradually  to  the  abstractions  necessary  in  the  sciences 
later. 

4.  The  concrete  must  not  be  carried  too  far.  The  ob- 
jects are  necessary  at  first,  but  they  are  only  the  scaffold- 
ing, and  should  be  removed  when  the  building  is 
complete.  The  mind  uses  the  concrete  object  to  aid  it  in 
grasping  the  abstract  thought.  It  hobbles  for  awhile  on 
the  crutches  of  sense,  but  it  must  learn  later  to  soar 
into  the  realm  of  the  abstract.  The  thought  may  then 
be  grasped  without  illustration  or  representation  of  the 
object.  To  depend  upon  objects  too  long  in  number  work 
is  to  weaken  the  child's  mind  for  mathematics.  The 
child  must  be  trained  to  hold  some  of  the  results  in  mind. 
It  is  well  to  develop  the  multiplication  table  by  the  use 
of  objects,  but  unless  the  results  are  retained  in  the 
mind,  the  child  is  weakened  in  its  power  to  apply  the 
multiplication  table  to  the  practical  things  of  life.  To 
show  by  objects  how  the  results  of  the  multiplication 


116  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

table  are  derived  is  well,  but  until  the  child  has  these 
results  so  perfectly  in  mind  that  they  are  almost  a  second 
nature,  they  are  not  ready  to  leave  it.  Many  moral  lessons 
given  by  the  use  of  objects  is  a  degradation  of  the  great 
moral  truths,  to  say  nothing  of  the  degradation  of  the 
science  work  itself. 

5.  In  primary  instruction  we  may  use  analysis  and 
synthesis.     The  first  is  better  in  some  subjects,  and  the 
second  in  others;  while  in  other  subjects  both  methods 
should  be  combined.     In  reading  by  the  word  method, 
which  seems  the  most  logical  of  all  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing reading,  the  word  is  taught  as  a  whole  first,  then 
words  are  combined  into  sentences, —  a  synthetic  process, 
—  and  later  the  words  are  analyzed   into   letters  —  an 
analytic  process.     Pronunciation  also  goes  by  synthesis 
and  analysis  —  first  a  synthesis  of  sounds  in  the  words, 
then  the  analysis  of  the  word  into  its  elements,  and  last 
a  synthesis  of  the  elements  into  words.    Grammar  should 
be  taught  first  synthetically  and  then  analytically,   and 
later  the  two  methods  combined.    In  geography  we  begin 
with  the  school-house  and  grounds,  and  proceed  to  the 
township,   county,    State,   etc.     Then   we   may   use   the 
reverse  process  and  begin  with  the  world  as  a  whole  and 
by  analysis  come  down  to  the  details  of  the  subject.     In 
primary   arithmetic  addition   precedes   subtraction,   mul- 
tiplication precedes  division,  and  in  arithmetic  solutions 
we  use  both  analysis  and  synthesis. 

6.  Analysis  and  synthesis  dre  often  combined  in  ad- 
vanced studies.     Sometimes  analysis  is  the  best  method, 
and   sometimes   synthesis,   and   often  the  two   are  com- 
bined   in    different    degrees    in   the    same    subject.      In 
the  natural  sciences  the  pupils  should  analyze   for  the 


BASIC  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING  117 

elements,  and  then  synthesize  these  elements  into  science. 
The  facts  are  to  be  found  and  grouped  into  classes,  and 
the  phenomena  combined  so  as  to  explain  their  law  and 
their  causes.  In  elementary  mathematics,  synthesis  pre- 
vails ;  while  in  advanced,  the  analytic,  and  this  seems  the 
typical  order  for  all  the  higher  studies. 


METHODS 


XVIII.    READING 

SOMK  one  has  said  that  all  education  consists  in  learn- 
ing to  read.  While  this  is  an  overstatement,  reading  is 
an  essential  to  most  school  work,  and  to  teach  a  child 
to  read  is  one  of  the  first  duties  of  the  teacher.  The  two 
essentials  of  reading  are  — 

1.  To  read  intelligently.  , 

2.  To  read  intelligibly. 

To  these  two  essentials  may  be  added  two  other 
points  of  much  merit, —  (3)  to  read  forcefully,  and  (4) 
to  read  gracefully.  These  four  points  give  the  essence 
of  all  good  reading,  and  good  teaching  strives  to  attain 
these  ends. 

The  purposes  of  teaching  the  child  to  read  are  — 

1.  To  enable  him  to  gain  information. 

2.  To  enable  him  to  impart  information. 

3.  To  gain  pleasure  from  reading. 

These  purposes  should  be  kept  constantly  in  view  by 
the  teacher.  From  the  very  first  pupils  can  be  trained 
to  gather  the  thought  from  the  page.  It  may  be  very 
simple  thoughts  at  first,  but  the  pupil  must  realize  that 
the  page  speaks  to  him.  He  then  begins  to  acquire 
knowledge.  Then,  too,  he  must  impart  this  knowledge 
to  others.  He  must  tell  them  what  the  page  says  to  him. 

Last,  but  not  least,  is  the  pleasure  that  reading  will 
afford  him  in  after  life.  The  pleasure  of  reading  books, 
magazines,  and  newspapers,  to  glean  from  the  printed 
page  the  world's  events  for  the  day,  or  week,  or  month, 

121 


122  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

to  see  with  the  mind's  eye  the  happenings  of  the  world 
—  this  is  a  pleasure  which,  never  experienced,  makes 
the  mental  horizon  little  larger  than  the  physical.  Not 
only  this,  but  reading  unlocks  the  beauties  of  nature 
and  art,  and  reveals  the  aesthetic  pleasure  which  comes 
from  reading  pure  literature. 

Reading  not  only  gives  pleasure  to  the  reader,  but 
oral  reading,  if  well  done,  is  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the 
hearer.  Oral  reading,  as  it  was  formerly  taught,  was 
mechanical.  Later  it  was  imitative  of  the  elocutionist. 
Oral  reading  should  be  the  correct  and  natural  expres- 
sion of  thought.  When  to  this  is  added  a  pleasing  voice, 
the  fireside  reading  circle  in  the  home  may  be  made  a 
pleasure  indeed. 

Silent  reading,  however,  is  of  most  importance.  To 
train  the  pupil  to  think  and  to  grasp  the  thought  of  the 
printed  page  is  the  great  task  of  the  teacher.  "  Syste- 
matic reading/'  says  Russell,  "  is  the  valued  means  for 
cultivating  reflective  habits  of  mind,  which  is  study,  not 
perusal, —  reading  which  is  tentatively  done,  carefully 
reviewed,  exactly  recorded,  or  orally  recounted." 

The  pupil  should  soon  learn  to  enjoy  reading  solely  for 
the  sake  of  reading.  Choice  stories,  biographies,  inter- 
esting histories,  anecdotes,  travels,  and  clean  fiction 
should  be  placed  in  his  hands  early,  and  a  taste  for 
reading  cultivated.  This  will  give  an  impetus  to  the  pu- 
pil, and  if  wise  selections  are  made  for  him  he  will  soon 
form  a  taste  for  good  reading.  It  will  prove  both  inter- 
esting and  profitable.  If  silent  reading  were  encouraged 
at  home,  and  pupils  were  given  access  to  books,  much  of 
the  school-room  monotonous  drawl  would  be  avoided. 
Pupils  should  be  trained  to  read  as  fluently  as  they  talk. 


READING  123 

Not  only  that,  but  they  should  be  taught  to  talk  grace- 
fully and  freely. 

So  many  pupils  spell  out  laboriously  the  printed  words 
from  the  page  without  getting  any  meaning  from  them. 
Whenever  the  child  can  feel  that  the  page  is  speaking  to 
him,  whenever  he  has  mastered  the  mechanical  forms  un- 
til there  is  contact  with  the  author's  thought,  then  read- 
ing becomes  a  pleasure. 

There  are  at  present  three  common  methods  of  teach- 
ing the  child  to  read,  with  half  a  dozen  other  methods 
which  vary  slightly  from  the  main  ones. 

THE;  ALPHABET  METHOD. 

This  is  the  method  our  fathers  and  grandfathers  were 
taught.  A  large  majority  of  men  and  women  of  middle 
age  were  taught  by  this  method.  It  consists  in  learn- 
ing first  the  names  of  the  letters,  and  then  combining 
these  letters  into  words.  Perhaps  most  of  us  are  famil- 
iar with  the  short  words  ba,  be,  bi,  bo,  etc.  The  alpha- 
bet method  is  now  almost  obsolete,  and  teachers  have 
sometimes  gone  to  the  other  extreme.  The  English  alpha- 
bet consists  of  twenty-six  letters,  and  there  are  upwards 
of  forty  sounds  in  the  language.  This  makes  it  a  difficult 
task  to  teach  the  child  to  read  by  this  method.  Then  it 
is  not  good  philosophy  to  call  attention  to  the  parts  be- 
fore the  whole.  Children  taught  by  the  alphabet  method 
lose  much  time  before  they  are  able  to  read  fluently. 
Teachers  are  few  who  have  not  been  annoyed  by  the 
pupil  taught  the  a,  b,  c's  at  home,  and  instead  of  grasp- 
ing the  form  of  the  word  at  a  glance,  stops  short  and 
begins  to  spell  the  word  in  a  coarse  whisper.  The  mind 
of  the  pupil  is  intent  on  the  parts  of  the  word  instead  of 
the  word  itself. 


124  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

While  the  alphabet  method  is  not  the  best  one  for 
teaching  the  child  to  read,  the  other  extreme  is  also  to 
be  avoided.  Children  should  not  be  left  helpless  in 
learning  new  words,  and  to  learn  the  parts  of  the  word 
early  is  one  of  the  best  preparations  for  mastering  new 
words.  After  the  child  has  learned  to  read  short,  easy 
sentences,  the  attention  should  then  be  directed  to  the 
letters  which  compose  the  word.  Spelling  and  reading 
must,  in  a  degree,  go  hand  in  hand  from  this  on. 

The  word  method  is  the  natural  method  of  learning  to 
read.  The  child  learns  to  speak  words.  The  mother  points 
to  the  object  and  calls  the  name.  What  would  be  more 
ridiculous  than  when  the  cat  enters  the  room  for  the 
mother  to  point  to  it  and  say  to  the  child  c-a-t.  Yet 
this  is  just  the  method  employed  when  pupils  are  taught 
the  letters  separately  first.  If  the  child  learns  the  spoken 
word  as  a  unit,  it  would  seem  proper  that  he  learn  the 
printed  word  the  same  way. 

THE  WORD  METHOD. 

A  child  entering  school  knows  a  large  number  of 
words,  and  knows  them  as  well  as  he  will,  perhaps,  ever 
know  them,  that  is,  the  meaning  of  them.  Show  the 
child  an  object,  then  show  him  a  picture  of  it.  Teach 
him  to  discriminate  between  the  two.  Then  show  him 
the  written  or  printed  word,  and  teach  him  that  this,  too, 
represents  the  object.  He  should  then  grow  familiar 
with  the  written  or  printed  form  until  when  he  sees 
that  form  he  thinks  of  the  object  as  readily  as  if  he  saw 
the  picture  of  the  object.  It  is  not  hard  to  select  a 
list  of  objects  which  can  be  represented  thus.  Verbs, 
adjectives,  and  some  parts  of  speech  are  not  quite  so 
readily  taught.  Yet  the  child  is  familiar  with  these 


READING  125 

words,  and  after  a  very  few  lessons  will  begin  to  recog- 
nize the  written  or  printed  form  of  these  words  as  read- 
ily as  the  picture. 

The  child  should  be  taught  thoroughly  a  dozen  or 
more  words.  Then  these  words  may  be  grouped  into 
short,  easy  sentences.  All  new  words  in  the  reading 
lesson  should  be  studied  as  individual  words  before  the 
child  begins  the  preparation  of  the  new  lesson.  After 
the  child  has  learned  a  hundred  words  or  so,  the  letters 
may  be  taught.  After  that  time  new  words  are  to  be 
taught  as  a  unit  and  afterward  divided  into  their  parts, 
and  the  spelling  and  syllabification  should  form  part  of 
the  drill  on  the  new  words. 

Children  taught  by  the  word  method  do  not  drawl 
out  their  reading  as  those  taught  by  the  alphabet  method. 
The  teacher  must  strive  always  to  have  the  pupil  get  the 
idea  back  of  the  printed  characters.  Is  it  not  a  common 
thing  for  pupils  to  read  in  a  high-pitched,  nervous  voice, 
as  if  they  were  standing  on  tiptoe  reaching  after  some- 
thing just  above  them?  Stop  the  pupil,  and  have  him  tell 
you  what  the  book  is  saying  to  him.  Then  the  chances 
are  that  he  will  speak  it  naturally.  Then  have  him  read 
in  that  tone  of  voice  as  far  as  possible.  By  a  judicious 
use  of  the  word  and  alphabet  method,  with  constant  at- 
tention to  the  thought  behind  the  printed  form,  our  best 
teachers  secure  excellent  results. 

THE    SENTENCE    METHOD. 

For  the  last  decade  or  more  some  most  excellent 
primary  teachers  have  been  using  the  sentence  method. 
This  is  dealing  with  the  sentence  as  the  unit  instead  of 
the  word.  It  cannot  be  questioned  that  most  excellent 
results  have  been  attained  by  this  method.  A  skilful 


126  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

teacher  will  get  good  results.  Pupils  taught  by  it  sel- 
dom drawl  their  reading.  Its  advocates  urge  that  even 
with  the  isolated  word  used  by  the  child,  as  he  is  learning 
to  speak,  is  in  reality  a  sentence,  the  other  words  in  the 
sentence  being  understood.  The  sentence  method,  its 
advocates  claim,  is  the  natural  method  of  learning  to 
read. 

Besides  the  three  methods  mentioned  there  might 
be  named  the  word-building  method,  the  object  method, 
the  phonetic  method,  the  phonic  method,  and  others. 
These,  however,  are  but  various  combinations  of  other 
methods,  rather  than  distinct  ones. 

Let  it  never  be  forgotten  that  the  earnest,  conscien- 
tious teacher  who  is  intent  on  teaching  the  child  to  read, 
and  whose  wits  and  ingenuity  are  all  brought  to  this  im- 
portant task,  will  succeed  by  any  method.  Like  most  other 
things,  there  are  good  and  bad  methods,  but  results  are 
more  important  than  methods.  The  teacher  should  un- 
derstand the  underlying  principles  of  a  number  of  meth- 
ods. Then  by  careful  study  and  faithful  preparation  of 
the  work,  many  variations  will  be  suggested  which,  per- 
haps, will  fit  some  particular  pupil  or  condition. 

One  great  difficulty  in  pupils  learning  to  read  is  the 
lack  of  the  same  words  used  in  different  sentences.  If 
pupils  could  have  two  or  three  readers  with  the  same 
words  used  in  each,  but  the  story  different,  much  time 
would  be  gained  in  learning  to  read.  Teachers  can  do 
much  to  help  pupils  over  this  difficulty.  If  the  teacher 
would  take  the  time  and  trouble  to  prepare  a  reading 
chart,  using  no  word  except  those  which  the  pupil  had 
used  in  previous  lessons,  and  combining  them  into  short 
and  simple  stories,  it  would  be  a  great  help  to  his 
classes.  These  sentences  could  be  written  on  the  black- 


READING  127 

board,  or  neatly  written  and  copied  on  the  hectograph, 
where  the  pupils  did  not  have  supplementary  readers. 
Then  too,  the  teacher  arranging  his  own  lessons  can 
arrange  them  to  suit  a  particular  class  or  occasion.  A 
little  simple  story  in  which  the  names  of  one  or  two 
pupils  of  the  class  may  be  used,  will  arouse  an  intense 
interest,  and  after  a  few  weeks'  use  of  such  supplemen- 
tary work  great  improvement  in  the  reading  of  the  class 
may  be  observed.  Let  me  say  that  the  teacher  who  does 
not  have  a  hectograph  or  some  other  good  duplicating 
device,  is  much  handicapped. 

Pupils  should  be  brought  to  a  stage  of  self-helpful- 
ness as  soon  as  possible,  that  is,  they  should  be  taught 
to  meet  and  master  new  words  without  help  from  the 
teacher.  Perhaps  the  best  incentive  to  this  is  a  book  of 
interesting  stories,  with  good  print  and  simple  language, 
something  which  appeals  to  the  child.  Of  course,  the 
same  story  will  not  appeal  to  all  children,  but  the  child  is 
rare  to  whom  no  sort  of  story  will  appeal.  When  the 
child  wants  the  story  bad  enough  to  make  an  effort  to 
master  it  for  himself,  the  way  is  paved  to  good  reading. 
If  the  teacher  in  the  school-room  or  the  parents  in  the 
home  would  read  interesting  stories  to  the  class,  leaving 
the  story  at  an  interesting  point,  and  then  encouraging 
the  children  to  complete  it  alone,  it  would  be  a  great 
help  in  school  work. 

The  child  should,  from  the  very  first,  hear  good 
reading.  The  high-pitched,  gutteral  tones  heard  in  many 
school-rooms  may  soon  be  done  away  with,  and  even, 
gentle,  musical  tones  be  substituted  for  them  by  a  change 
in  teachers.  It  is  a  good  share  of  a  liberal  education  for 
the  child  to  hear  daily  a  well-modulated  voice.  Like 
music,  it  softens,  refines,  and  elevates.  If  teachers  could 


128  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

hear  their  own  voices  from  a  phonograph,  it  would  work 
wonders  in  the  school-room.  Children  who  have  the 
privilege  of  hearing  good  reading  daily  are  fortunate 
indeed. 

To  make  haste  slowly  in  teaching  the  children  to  read 
is  good  advice.  Children  should  master  the  words  of 
each  lesson  in  the  primary  grades  before  going  to  the 
next.  If  the  children  grow  tired  of  the  lesson  before 
the  words  in  it  are  mastered,,  re-write  the  story,  using  the 
same  words,  but  putting  it  in  different  form.  Here  is 
where  a  good  duplicating  device  is  so  helpful.  There  is 
a  limit,  however,  at  which  further  reading  of  the  lesson 
is  almost  useless.  In  the  grades  a  lesson  is  often 
so  completely  thrashed  over  that  pupils  are  dis- 
gusted with  it.  Perhaps  there  is  not  a  teacher  but  can 
recall  in  his  own  student  days  lessons  which  were  read 
and  re-read  until  they  grew  sick  and  tired  of  them.  It 
is  at  such  stages  as  this  that  an  interesting  story,  biogra- 
phy, and  the  supplementary  reader  is  so  much  valued. 
It  adds  renewed  energy  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  In 
reading,  as  in  everything  else,  the  time  is  utterly  wasted 
unless  there  is  effort  and  mental  activity  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil. 

Teachers  should,  as  soon  as  pupils  get  over  their 
timidity  on  entering  school,  insist  upon  an  easy,  grace- 
ful posture  while  reading.  Slovenly  habits  formed  here 
cling  through  life.  This  need  not  be  made  a  hobby,  as 
is  was  formerly  in  the  schools,  but  it  should  not  be  neg- 
lected. Insist  also  early  in  school  life  on  distinct  articu- 
lation. The  teacher  can  leave  his  impress,  to  a  very  great 
extent,  on  the  community  by  insisting  upon  perfect 
articulation,  and  drilling  the  pupils  in  that  line.  We 
would  not,  of  course,  think  of  the  teacher  being  pedantic 


READING  129 

in  this  particular.  In  a  certain  sense  there  may  be  a 
local  color  in  pronunciation.  It  would  be  as  much  out  of 
place  for  the  teacher  to  insist  upon  his  pupils  observ- 
ing certain  sounds  of  "  a  "  which  prevail  in  the  East  were 
he  teaching  in  the  West,  as  it  would  be  for  the  Westerner 
to  insist  on  the  flat  sounds  of  the  same  letter  were  he 
teaching  in  the  East.  In  teaching,  as  in  other  things,  the 
teacher  must  use  good  common  sense  and  avoid  being  a 
pedant. 

There  are  numerous  other  little  points  which  the 
teacher  must  teach  his  pupils  to  guard  against.  They 
must  be  taught  to  read  neither  too  fast  nor  too  slow,  too 
loud  nor  too  low.  Break  up  the  sing-song,  monotonous 
reading  so  often  heard.  This  can  be  done  by  stopping 
a  pupil  and  having  him  express  the  thought  as  he  would 
were  he  talking.  Drawling  must  also  be  prevented. 
Children  are  imitative,  and  bad  habits  may  be  charac- 
teristics of  the  individual  school.  It  is  the  teacher's 
business  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  such  habits.  Then, 
too,  the  sing-song  tones  heard  in  reading  poetry  should 
not  be  tolerated.  This  comes  from  not  connecting  the 
sense  with  the  thought,  of  the  poem.  There  is,  it  is 
true,  a  rhythm  in  poetry,  but  when  the  reader  really  gets 
the  thought,  the  sing-song  will  not  be  heard. 

ADVANCED    READING. 

Reading  is  too  much  neglected  in  the  advanced 
grades.  Many  teachers  work  faithfully  and  earnestly 
with  the  first,  second,  and  third  grade  reading,  but  neg- 
lect it  in  the  grades  above  this.  This  is  a  great  mistake. 
In  the  higher  grades  many  failures  come  from  not 
being  able  to  interpret  the  printed  page.  In  fact,  many  of 
the  mistakes  in  arithmetic  are  in  reality  but  lack  of 
power  to  master  the  English.  Time  after  time  do  we  see 

9 


130  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

pupils  whose  failure  on  a  problem  is  a  failure  to  inter- 
pret the  language.  Through  all  the  grades  of  the  com- 
mon schools  there  should  be  some  attention  given  to 
reading  as  reading.  It  may  not  be  daily,  but  it  should 
be  a  regular  and  systematic  drill  in  reading. 

Children  in  the  upper  grades  should  read  literature ; 
whole  selections  of  literature,  not  scraps.  It  is  unpardon- 
able that  in  many  schools  pupils  in  the  advanced  grades 
leave  school  without  ever  having  read  such  beautiful  and 
inspiring  selections  as  "  Evangeline/'  "  The  Courtship  of 
Miles  Standish,"  "  Snow  Bound,"  "  Enoch  Arden," 
"  King  of  the  Golden  River,"  and  scores  of  others  equally 
interesting. 

The  successful  teacher  of  reading  in  the  advanced 
grades  must  believe  in  his  subject.  He  must  believe  that 
to  lead  the  pupil  to  the  proper  appreciation  of  the  se- 
lection of  pure  literature  is  to  place  the  pupil  on  a  higher 
spiritual  plane.  Such  an  appreciation  will  lift  him  above 
much  that  is  low  and  groveling  and  vicious,  and  give 
him  a  constant  companion  and  monitor  which,  like  David 
Copperfield's  Agnes,  is  always  pointing  upward. 

To  teach  successfully,  reading  or  literature,  in  the 
advanced  grades  requires  that  the  teacher  must  be  famil- 
iar with  the  selection  to  be  taught.  He  must  understand 
it  in  all  its  bearings.  He  must  have  studied  it  earnestly 
and  carefully,  and  then  he  must  have  planned  how  he 
can  best  present  it  to  the  class  so  that  they  will  get  the 
most  out  of  it.  Less  than  this  is  to  make  reading  in  the 
advanced  grades  a  mere  farce. 

No  subject  in  the  whole  school  curriculum  is  more 
inspiring  than  literature.  It  appeals  to  the  universal  in 
mankind.  The  lessons  it  brings  are  the  ideals  of  the 
soul's  possibilities.  It  quickens  in  the  individual  soul  the 


READING  131 

inspirations  which  are  universal.  The  beautiful  friend- 
ship of  Damon  and  Pythias  is  above  our  selfishness,  lift- 
ing us  above  ourselves,  creating  in  us  higher  aspirations 
and  showing  us  our  own  possibilities.  The  soul  is  con- 
stantly struggling  to  free  itself  from  bondage,  and  every 
time  a  limitation  is  removed  it  leaps  with  joy.  The 
reader,  if  he  really  reads,  is  forced  to  live,  for  the  time, 
the  ideal  life  pictured  in  the  literature,  and  thus  from  day 
to  day  his  soul  attains  to  higher  things.  -Children  whose 
hearts  and  minds  are  not  open  to  such  influences  lose 
some  of  the  most  potent  influences  to  a  higher  life. 
Let  me  plead  with  you  to  introduce  the  children  to  whole 
selections  of  pure  literature  in  the  advanced  grades  in 
reading.  It  may  prove  the  rising-bell  in  the  soul  of 
hundreds  of  pupils.  The  inspiration,  the  uplift,  and  the 
noble  sentiments  planted  in  the  hearts  of  pupils  at  this 
stage  will  yield  golden  fruits  of  better  things  in  after 
life. 

In  teaching  reading  in  the  advanced  grades,  broad  and 
accurate  scholarship  in  the  teacher  will  count  for  much. 
His  reading  and  study  should  have  made  him  familiar 
with  the  geographical,  historical,  and  mythological  char- 
acters. The  beauty  and  sublimity  of  much  of  our  liter- 
ature hangs  upon  the  suggestive  forces  of  such  references. 
The  teacher  to  whom  such  references  appeal  not  can  never 
be  an  ideal  teacher  of  reading  in  advanced  classes. 

Teachers  frequently  find  it  hard  in  the  intermediate 
and  higher  grades  to  interest  pupils  in  their  reading  les- 
son. It  is  so  often  true  that  pupils  work  faithfully  on 
arithmetic,  history,  geography,  or  grammar,  but  do  not  • 
think  it  necessary  to  look  over  their  reading  lesson  until 
time  to  recite.  They  do  not  study  their  reading  lesson. 
The  following  little  devices  may  be  suggestive  to  many 


132  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

teachers,  and  serve  to  break  the  monotony,  and  add  spice 
to  the  reading  class.  Teachers  should  never  lose  sight  of 
the  great  purpose  of  teaching  reading,  that  is,  to  train 
the  pupil  to  grasp  the  author's  thought  from  the  printed 
page.  Keep  the  minds  of  your  class  alert  at  all  hazards. 

1.  A  word-pronouncing  contest  is  a  good  stimulant 
to  class  interest  before  the  recitation.      Pupils  must  be 
able  to  call  every  word  at  sight.      Drill  them  on  the  list 
of  new  words  and  old  ones,  which  are  liable  to  give 
trouble,  from  the  book  or  on  the  board.    They  should  be 
able   to   recognize   any   word   quickly   at   sight.      Write 
the  word  on  the  board,  and  have  the  pupils  call  it  as 
soon  as  they  recognize  it.     After  the  words  are  written 
on  the  board,  number  the  pupils  in  your  class,  and  point- 
ing to  the  word,  call  the  number  of  the  pupil.    The  pupil 
is  to  pronounce  the  word  quickly  and  accurately.      This 
drill   will   be   both   pleasant   and   profitable. 

2.  In  primary  classes  pupils  will  take  great  pleasure 
in  chalk  talks.     That  is,  the  teacher  will  make  the  chalk 
give  the  command  to  some  member  of  the  class.      As 
soon  as  the  pupil  can  read  the  command,  he  performs 
the  act.    Pupils  will  soon  learn  to  make  the  chalk  do  the 
talking,  and  will  take  great  pleasure  in  writing  sentences, 
which   the   others   must   interpret   and   perform   the   act 
without  being  told. 

3.  Question  pupils  on  their  reading.     This  is  a  splen- 
did exercise  to  secure  proper  emphasis.      Place  such  a 
sentence  as,  "  That  little  girl  writes  very  fast/'  on  the 
board.      Then  question  the  class  and  see  how  properly 
they   emphasize   the   words   to   bring  out  the   meaning. 
Who  writes  very  fast?      Which  little  girl  writes  very 
fast?      How  does  the  little  girl  write?      How  fast  does 
the  little  girl  write?      Such  questions  will  not  only  lead 


READING  133 

to  proper  emphasis,  but  to  the  proper  interpretation  of 
the  sentence. 

4.  Have  the  pupils  read  the  paragraph  silently,  then 
call  upon  one  or  more  to  give  the  thought  of  the  para- 
graph in  his  own  language. 

5.  Make  sure  that  the  pupils  have  really  studied  the 
lesson  before  beginning  the  recitation.     The  teacher  must 
know  the  lesson  so  thoroughly  that  he  knows  the  story 
in  all  of  its  details,  and  then  with  books  closed  he  ques- 
tions carefully  and  completely  until  he  knows  just  the 
pupils  who  have  made  a  thorough  preparation  of  the 
lesson.       If  pupils  know   that   such   a   quiz   is   coming, 
they  will  not  often  neglect  to  thoroughly  prepare  the 
lesson. 

6.  While  it  is  not  a  good  thing  to  criticize  too  se- 
verely nor  to  permit  the  pupils  to  criticize  one  another 
until   after  the  pupil  has  finished  the  paragraph,   it  is 
often  an  interesting  exercise  to  call  on  a  pupil  to  read 
until  he  makes  a  mistake.      When  he  makes  a  mistake, 
he  may  be  seated  while  another  is  called  upon. 

7.  A  good  drill  in  securing  attention  to  the  reading 
is  to  have  each  pupil  in  the  class  numbered.      One  pu- 
pil is  then  called  upon  to  read,  and  at  irregular  intervals 
the  teacher  calls  out  the  number  of  some  pupil.      This 
pupil  must  then  take  up  the  reading  at  the  proper  word, 
and  continue  until  another  number  is  called.      This  re- 
quires, of  course,  that  each  pupil  give  careful  attention 
to  the  reading  in  order  to  know  where  to  begin  should 
his  number  be  called. 

8.  When  pupils  tire  of  the  regular  reader,  have  sup- 
plementary work,  either  in  other  readers  or  stories  and 


134  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

current  events  journals.      This  is  not  only  a  rest  from 
the  routine  reading  work,  but  cultivates  outside  reading. 

9.  Select  an  interesting  story  from  some  paper.      Cut 
it   into   a   number   of  parts,   and   distribute   these   parts 
among  the  pupils,  then  let  the  first  read,  and  the  pupil 
holding  the  next  part  must  rise  and  read  as  soon  as  the 
first  is  completed.     This  is  a  good  test  of  whether  pupils 
are  really  following  the  thought  of  the  story. 

10.  Drill  pupils  on  correct  pronunciation.     While  it 
is   a   mistake   to   be   too   critical,    especially    with   timid 
pupils,  there  is  nothing  so  beneficial  as  a  teacher  with 
careful    and    accurate    pronunciation.      Drill    pupils    on 
words  mispronounced.     The  pronunciation  of  the  word 
literature  tells  very  much  as  to  the  training  in  pronun- 
ciation.     Strive  to  overcome  local  peculiarities  of  pro- 
nunciation.    If  the  teacher  is  popular  with  the  pupils, 
they  will  soon  accept  his  pronunciation,  and  do  much 
to  correct  faults  among  themselves  by  criticising  one  an- 
other. 


XIX.    WRITING 

WRITING  is  not  so  much  a  study  as  an  art.  The 
pupil  should  learn  to  write  from  the  very  first,  and 
daily  practice  in  writing  should  continue  through  at  least 
the  first  six  grades.  To  write  a  neat,  rapid,  legible  hand 
is  a  great  accomplishment,  one  which  is  worth  much  to 
pupils  in  after  life.  Nowhere  can  the  teacher  see  him- 
self reflected  more  quickly  or  more  perfectly  than  in 
writing.  If  he  is  neat  and  writes  a  good  hand,  the  writ- 
ing will  improve.  If  he  is  a  poor  penman  and  careless, 
the  pupils  will  grow  indifferent.  The  popular  teacher 
can  see  his  own  handwriting  reflected  in  the  writing  of 
the  pupils,  even  to  the  crossing  of  the  t's. 

Teachers  should  be  careful  to  get  neat,  legible  forms 
of  the  letters  fastened  in  the  pupils'  minds  from  the  very 
first.  With  larger  pupils  who  have  acquired  improper 
forms,  nothing  is  a  better  corrective  than  an  analysis  of 
the  letters  into  their  elements.  This  with  much  drill  on 
the  simple  elements  will  help.  Do  not  follow  fads  in 
teaching  writing,  but  teach  a  plain,  simple  hand.  The 
vertical,  the  half  slant,  and  other  systems  have  their  ad- 
vocates and  their  day,  and  like  other  fads  are  soon  for- 
gotten. In  this  as  in  many  other  things  the  system  is 
of  less  importance  than  results. 

The  two  tests  of  writing  are  legibility  and  rapidity. 
In  this  age  of  push  and  hurry  there  is  little  place  for 
the  old-time  writing  master  with  his  painstaking,  accu- 
rate copy.  For  four  years  in  early  life  my  teacher  urged 
us  to  write  slowly  and  carefully,  and  it  has  been  a  detri- 

135 


136  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

ment  to  me  ever  since.  Finger  movements  became  habit- 
ual, which  have  never  been  overcome.  The  slow,  labored 
movement  is  always  at  a  discount.  The  teacher  who  does 
not  drill  on  easy,  rapid  muscular  movement  in  the  class 
until  it  becomes  habitual  with  the  pupils,  is  a  poor  teacher 
of  writing.  Good,  easy,  rapid  movement,  with  legibility, 
will  constitute  good  writing,  whether  the  writing  con- 
forms exactly  to  any  system  or  not. 

The  teacher  should  insist  upon  neatness  in  all  written 
work  done  in  school,  and  should  set  the  example.  This 
with  daily  practice  will  secure  good  results.  As  soon  as 
pupils  are  large  enough  to  use  ink  without  spilling,  they 
should  be  taught  to  write  with  a  pen.  Daily  practice 
with  pen  and  ink  should  follow  for  several  years,  until 
pupils  write  a  neat,  rapid,  legible  hand. 

Use  practice  paper,  and  drill  on  movement  until  pupils 
gain  perfect  control  over  the  muscles.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  so  many  States  make  the  use  of  the  copy 
book  obligatory.  When  the  teacher  is  an  unusually  poor 
writer,  the  use  of  the  copy  book  may  be  an  advantage,  in 
that  it  gives  a  good  form  for  the  pupils  to  follow.  But  if 
the  copy  book  must  be  used,  it  should  be  supplemented 
daily  by  practice  on  free  muscular  movements,  and  good 
writing  paper  is  much  the  best  for  this.  Use  good  paper, 
a  good  medium  pen,  and  black  ink  of  a  good  quality. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  best  usually  to  take  charge  of 
the  paper,  pens,  and  ink  at  the  close  of  the  practice  period. 
The  ink  may  be  labeled  with  the  name  of  the  owner. 
Three  monitors  from  each  row  of  seats  may  be  appointed, 
—  one  to  collect  and  distribute  pens,  another  ink,  another 
paper  and  copy  books.  These  may  be  kept  safely  on  a 
shelf  or  in  a  book-case.  The  privilege  of  acting  as  mon- 
itor may  be  made  a  reward  of  merit,  as  most  pupils  will 


WRITING  137 

take  pride  in  performing  these  duties.  It  will  take  but  a 
minute  or  two  to  collect  and  distribute  writing  material, 
and  there  are  less  accidents  with  ink  and  cleaner  copy 
books.  As  the  advanced  pupils  may  need  pen  and  ink 
at  any  time,  the  paper  or  copy  books  only  may  be  collected, 
and  the  pupils  in  these  grades  permitted  to  retain  their 
ink  and  pens. 

Teach  pupils 'to  sit  erect  and  to  hold  a  pen  properly 
from  the  first.  It  is  easier  to  prevent  pupils  from  forming 
bad  habits  than  to  correct  these  habits  after  they  are 
formed.  Almost  any  good  copy  book  will  discuss  the 
position  at  the  desk  and  the  proper  way  to  hold  a  pen, 
and  this  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  a  copy  book.  The 
advice  of  the  copy  book  is  good,  but  to  their  use  is  at- 
tributed very  justly  much  of  the  slow,  laborious,  cramped 
writing. 

Select  a  number  of  good  muscular  drills,  and  have 
pupils  practice  them  until  they  have  a  free,  easy  muscular 
movement  together  with  correct  form  of  letters.  When 
this  is  done, —  and  by  good  example  and  persistence  it 
can  be  done, —  the  problem  of  writing  is  solved,  if  the 
teacher  will  then  insist  that  all  written  work  be  neatly  and 
properly  done. 


XX.     SPELLING 

THE  subject  of  spelling  has  been  greatly  overesti- 
mated by  some  teachers  and  greatly  underestimated  by 
others.  Teachers  in  the  past,  many  of  them,  made  it  a 
hobby  in  the  school,  and  later  many  teachers  treated  it 
with  neglect,  not  to  say  contempt.  There  is  no  great 
credit  in  being  a  good  speller,  but  there  is  great  discredit 
in  being  a  poor  one.  A  few  years  ago,  to  my  personal 
knowledge,  a  strong  man  was  an  applicant  for  a  school 
position.  In  almost  everything  he  was  well  qualified  for 
the  place,  and  would  have  been  elected  to  it  but  for  a 
letter  containing  some  misspelled  words.  He  could  not 
spell.  His  mind  seemed  unable  to  take  in  details,  and 
very  simple  words  were  often  misspelled. 

We  may  call  it  a  mistake  of  the  hand  rather  than  of 
the  head,  but  the  consequences  are  the  same.  In  the 
language  of  Dr.  Currie,  "  Spelling  is  an  art  the  posses- 
sion of  which  procures  no  credit,  but  the  want  of  entails 
disgrace/'  Professor  March  says,  "  Stress  is  laid  on 
spelling  as  the  sign  of  a  thoroughly  educated  person  out 
of  all  proportion  to  its  real  value."  Correct  spelling  is, 
however,  and  rightly  should  be,  regarded  as  one  essential 
of  an  educated  and  scholarly  mind. 

In  the  old-time  school,  spelling  was  a  fad.  It  was 
at  a  time  when  the  subjects  in  the  school  were  few. 
Later,  as  new  and  richer  subjects  began  to  be  introduced, 
spelling  began  to  lose  its  place.  Ciphering  matches,  his- 
tory and  geography  games,  and  such  recreations  began  to 
unseat  spelling,  which  had  held  a  monopoly  of  the  matter 

138 


SPELLING  139 

of  school  entertainment  and  had  received  the  plaudits 
of  thinking  people  and  people  without  thinking.  Thus 
spelling  was  eclipsed  in  interest,  and  for  a  time  was 
greatly  neglected. 

It  was  found,  too,  that  many  who  could  stand  and 
spell  well  orally  were  poor  spellers  when  it  came  to 
writing.  Educators  then  began  a  crusade  against  so  much 
time  being  wasted  on  spelling.  It  dawned  upon  the  rank 
and  file  of  teachers  that  writing  was  the  only  test  of  spell- 
ing. Perhaps  you  may  know  me  for  years  and  never 
know  whether  I  am  a  good  speller  or  not,  for  the  chances 
are  many  to  one  that  I  shall  never  give  you  an  oppor- 
tunity to  stand  me  up  in  line  with  a  number  of  other 
persons  and  spell  down.  But  if  you  should  receive  a 
letter  from  me,  even  though  it  be  a  short  one,  you  may 
with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  judge  of  my  ability  to  spell. 
Writing  is  the  only  real  test  of  one's  ability  to  spell  cor- 
rectly. Then  came  a  reaction  against  oral  spelling.  The 
pendulum  swung  to  the  other  extreme,  and  for  some 
years  teachers  practically  discarded  oral  spelling. 

It  was  not  surprising  that  this  reaction  should  come. 
Less  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  old  blue-back 
speller  reigned  supreme  in  many  schools.  When  a  boy, 
I  spelled  through  McGufTey's  spelling  book  —  I  have  no 
idea  how  often  we  turned  back  —  before  I  began  to  read. 
I  used  the  spelling  book  until  I  was  ready  for  the  fourth 
reader.  How  vividly  some  of  the  scenes  come  up  before 
me !  A  long  line  of  boys  and  girls  "  toeing  a  mark  " 
down  one  side  of  the  school-room  and  partly  across  the 
end,  spelling  for  head-marks  and  knowing  the  penalties 
of  failure.  To  miss  three  words  meant  to  stand  on  the 
floor  ten  minutes ;  to  miss  more  than  five  words,  to  stand 
on  the  floor  half  an  hour;  and  if  we  could  not  spell  all 


140  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

the  words  by  that  time,  we  continued  to  stand  until  we 
had  learned  them. 

As  I  recall  the  method  of  teaching  spelling  in  that 
school,  I  note  two  great  mistakes : — 

i.  There  was  no  effort  to  bring  the  words  into  the 
child's  experience  or  to  teach  the  meaning  of  the  words 
"balcony,"  "barony,"  "baronet,"  etc.— the  first  could 
have  been  explained  to  me,  the  second  and  third  were 
beyond  my  experience.  I  doubt  if  my  teacher's  concep- 
tion of  them  was  much  clearer  than  my  own.  I  stumbled 
and  staggered  over  the  word  "  vial,"  never  thinking  for 
a  moment  that  it  was  a  little  bottle.  The  word  "  patent " 
I  spelled  over  and  over  again  without  any  thought  of 
what  it  meant.  Had  the  teacher  given  "  a  "  the  short 
sound  instead  of  the  long  sound  and  told  me  the  words 
were  the  same,  I  should  have  had  at  least  a  vague  idea 
of  its  meaning,  as  I  had  heard  the  word  patent  used  often, 
and  eyen  knew  that  when  a  man  had  a  patent  on  an 
article  no  one  else  had  the  right  to  make  it. 

2.  The  pupils  were  not  taught  how  to  study.  Instead 
of  looking  at  a  word  long  enough  to  get  a  clear  and 
lasting  impression  and  thinking  it  over  until  we  had  mas- 
tered it,  we  were  seeing  how  often  we  could  study  over 
the  lesson.  We  began  at  the  first  word  and  spelled 
rapidly  through  the  lesson,  giving  no  thought  except  to 
study  it  over.  That  dreaded  disgrace  of  standing  on  the 
floor  —  we  wanted  to  justify  ourselves  by  the  number  of 
times  we  studied  our  lesson.  My  old  speller  shows  by 
the  marks  in  the  margin  that  I  had  studied  the  lesson 
thirty-three  times.  I  should  have  had  it  committed  to 
memory  in  half  that  time  had  I  really  studied  it.  In  fact, 
had  I  really  studied  the  lesson  properly,  I  should  never 
have  thought  of  keeping  a  list  of  the  number  of  times  I 


SPELLING  141 

spelled  it  over.  In  spelling,  as  in  other  subjects,  the 
teacher  comes  far  short  of  his  duty  to  the  child  if  he  does 
not  often  instruct  him  how  to  study  with  best  results 
and  least  loss  of  time,  and  see  to  it  that  he  forms  habits 
of  such  study.  One  of  the  greatest  wastes  of  time  comes 
from  not  knowing  how  to  study,  and  from  this  ignorance 
come  wrong  habits  of  study  detrimental  to  the  child  all 
through  life. 

Why  is  spelling  hard?  It  is  due  primarily  to  the 
irregularities  of  English  orthography.  There  are  over 
forty  sounds  in  the  language,  and  only  twenty-six  letters. 
Then  there  are  so  many  irregularities  on  account  of 
silent  letters  and  the  different  letters  and  combinations 
of  letters  to  represent  the  same  sound.  These  irregulari- 
ties are  accounted  for  by  the  history  of  the  language  itself. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  was  first  reduced  to  writing  by  the 
Roman  missionaries.  They  used  the  Roman  letters  with 
few  modifications,  and  fitted  the  sounds  of  these  letters 
to  the  sound  of  the  words.  Then  came  the  Norman  Con- 
quest. The  Normans  and  the  Saxons  could  not  pro- 
nounce each  other's  words  correctly.  The  more  scholarly 
tried  to  hold  to  the  book-forms,  but  the  Normans  dropped 
the  special  Anglo-Saxon  discriminations,  and  left  many 
of  their  own  letters  in  the  words  which  were  not  sounded 
by  the  people  at  large.  Changes  in  the  vowel  sounds 
then  followed.  Inaccuracies  and  carelessness  in  authors 
and  copyists  also  contributed  to  these  irregularities. 
Wide  license  prevailed  before  the  time  of  printing. 
Proper  names  were  found  recorded  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
and  the  same  name  was  often  spelled  in  a  number  of  ways 
in  the  same  document.  Disraeli  states  that  Leicester  has 
subscribed  his  own  name  in  eight  different  ways,  and 


142  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

the  name  Villers  is  spelled  fourteen  different  ways  in  the 
deeds  of  that  family. 

These  irregularities  have  raised  the  hue  and  cry  for 
reformed  spelling,  and  let  us  hope  that  the  near  future 
will  see  many  common-sense  changes  in  the  spelling  of  a 
large  number  of  our  words ;  but  until  such  changes  come, 
the  teacher's  duty  is  to  take  the  language  as  it  is  and 
make  the  best  of  it. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

The  Oral  Method. —  By  this  method  we  mean  the 
old-fashioned  oral  spelling.  It  teaches  spelling  by  naming 
the  letters  of  the  words,  and  this  is  based  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  fixing  the  letters  of  the  word  in  memory  by  call- 
ing them  in  regular  succession.  It  appeals  to  the  sense 
of  hearing  and  the  observation  of  the  printed  form. 
Most  of  us  learned  to  spell  by  this  method,  and  it  has 
some  decided  advantages. 

1.  It  teaches  pupils  to  pronounce   words.     The   old 
plan  of  spelling  i-n   in,   c-o-m,  com,   incom ;  p-r-e  pre, 
incompre ;  h-e-n  hen,  incomprehen ;  s-i  si,  incomprehensi ; 
b-i-1  bil,'  incomprehensibil ;   i,   incomprehensibili ;   t-y  ty, 
incomprehensibility  may  sound  antiquated,  and  perhaps 
it  is,  but  nothing  is  better  to  make  the  pupil  independent 
in  pronunciation  than  well-directed  oral  spelling. 

2.  It  teaches  syllabification,  and  this  is  sadly  neglected 
in  the  ordinary  method  of  teaching  written  spelling.   Cor- 
rect syllabification  is  a  good  start  toward  correct  pronun- 
ciation,   and    if    incorrect    spelling    leads    to    disgrace, 
incorrect  pronunciation   points   the  way   and  gives  you 
companions  to  lead  you  on. 

3.  It  admits  of  many  interesting  methods  of  competi- 
tive  recitation.      While,   as   stated  before,   the   old-time 


SPELLING  143 

spelling  match  has  lost  much  of  its  interest,  it  is  thrill- 
ing yet  when  compared  with  a  written  spelling  match. 
There  are  also  some  disadvantages : — 

1.  Pupils  taught  by  the  oral  method  are  not  neces- 
sarily  accurate   spellers   in   writing.     Errors   in   writing 
may  come  from  two  sources :    First,  it  may  be  a  mistake 
of  the  head.     Such  mistakes  will  use  wrong  letters  in 
the  words.     The  writer  misspells  because  he  does  not 
know  how  to  spell  correctly.    The  second  is  more  a  mis- 
take of  the  hand  than  of  the  head.     Such  mistakes  are 
usually  letters  omitted.     The  hand  cannot  keep  up  with 
the  thought.    Practice,  practice  of  the  head  and  the  hand 
combined,  is  the  only  remedy  for  this.    This  disadvantage 
is  all  the  greater  when   we  consider  that  the  practical 
need  of  spelling  is  in  writing. 

2.  Another  disadvantage  is  that  each  pupil  of  a  class 
cannot  spell  as  many  words  by  the  oral  method  as  by 
the  written.     Pupils  sometimes  count  which  words  will 
come  to  them,  and  omit  the  study  of  the  others.     This 
objection  can  be  largely  obviated  by  promiscuous  pro- 
nunciation in  the  recitation.    Then  if  each  member  of  the 
class  gives  proper  attention,  he  hears  and  thinks  the  spell- 
ing of  each  word,  and  this  gives  practically  all  the  benefit 
of  the  written  spelling. 

THE)   WRITTEN    METHOD. 

This  method  teaches  spelling  by  writing  the  letters 
of  a  word.  Its  principle  is  that  of  fixing  the  spelling  of 
a  word  in  memory  through  the  sense  of  sight  and  the 
muscular  sense  of  forming  the  letters.  "  Things  seen  are 
mightier  than  things  heard,"  is  one  of  the  maxims  of  the 
advocates  of  written  spelling,  and  to  this  they  might  add 
another,  "  Things  done  are  more  impressive  than  things 


144  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

seen  only."  The  superiority  of  the  method  is  not  so  much 
in  the  sight  alone  as  in  the  actual  construction  of  the 
word  which  enforces  the  impression  on  the  mind.  The 
child  can  see  the  printed  form  just  as  well  in  the  spelling 
book,  but  this  re-enforcement  of  writing  the  words  is 
not  there.  There  are  some  decided  advantages  of  this 
method  over  the  oral  method : — 

1.  The  word  is  brought  more  vividly  before  the  mind 
in  writing  and  the  double  impression  is  more  lasting. 

2.  The  main  purpose  of  spelling  is  its  use  in  writing, 
and  the  practice  in  writing  trains  the  hand  and  the  head 
to  united  accuracy  in  the  spelling  of  the  words. 

3.  Each  pupil  will  be  tested  on  all  the  words  of  the 
lesson. 

4.  It  is  a  better  test  of  the  comparative  ability  of  the 
members  of  the  class  in  spelling,  as  all  the  pupils  spell 
the  same  words. 

5.  It  gives  the  pupil  the  opportunity  to  review  all  of 
the  misspelled  words  and  to  fix  the  corrected  form  in 
the  mind.     This  point  should  never  be  neglected  by  the 
teacher. 

6.  It  keeps  all  of  the  pupils  busy.  It  requires  a  teacher 
with  strong  personality  and  strong  disciplinary  power  to 
hold  the  attention  of  each  pupil  in  a  large  class  in  an  oral 
spelling  lesson. 

7.  To  be  a  good  speller,  one's  hand  must  be  so 
trained  to  produce  words  that  as  soon  as  the  word  is 
thought,  its  written  form  will  be  produced  without  minute 
directions  being  given  to  the  hand.  This  is  sometimes 
called  the  hand-motor  sense,  and  can  be  acquired  only 
by  much  drill  in  written  spelling. 


SPELLING  145 

During  the  first  two  years,  the  pupil  will  learn  most  of 
the  new  words  during  the  recitation  period.  But  the 
teacher  must  spare  no  pains  to  make  the  pupil  self-helpful. 
The  greatest  danger  of  the  word  method  in  the  teaching 
of  reading  is  that  pupils  do  not  learn  to  pronounce  strange 
words  without  help  from  some  one  else.  The  class  should 
soon  learn  to  pronounce  and  to  spell  the  new  words  at 
the  head  of  the  lesson.  There  is  some  advantage  in  hav- 
ing all  of  the  spelling  done  in  full  sentences  at  first.  It 
keeps  before  the  mind  of  the  pupil  all  that  has  been 
learned  in  the  reading.  It  prepares  him  at  once  to  write 
what  he  speaks  and  makes  learning  to  spell  a  rapid  and 
intelligent  process. 

When  the  child  has  learned  to  spell  a  hundred  or 
a  hundred  and  fifty  words,  and  to  use  them  in  his  read- 
ing he  may  begin  to  spell  isolated  lists  of  words.  These 
should  for  some  time  be  arranged  in  lists  similar  in 
form  and  sound.  It  will  enable  the  teacher  to  teach  the 
sounds  more  readily,  and  to  point  out  the  differences 
of  similar  words,  and  the  learning  of  the  similar  parts 
will  serve  to  give  the  pupil  a  mastery  of  other  sim- 
ilar words.  For  example,  "  cat,"  "  bat,"  "  hat,"  "  mat/' 
"  fat,"  ""sat,"  etc.  When  the  child  has  gained  power 
enough  to  learn  new  words  without  association  with  sim- 
ilar words,  he  may  begin  the  use  of  the  spelling  book. 

Throughout  the  school  course  the  child  should  give 
particular  attention  to  the  words  of  its  own  vocabulary, 
to  the  words  needed  in  expressing  its  own  thoughts. 
Spelling,  however,  serves  another  purpose  sometimes 
overlooked.  It  may  increase  a  child's  vocabulary.  The 
use  of  a  spelling  book  should  never  be  condemned  on 
account  of  the  abuse  of  it.  The  teacher  in  using  the 
spelling  book  should  question  pupils  for  the  meaning  of 
to 


146  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

words.  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  a  dry  dictionary  defi- 
nition. A  proper  use  of  the  word  in  a  sentence  is  much 
to  be  preferred.  There  is  much  time  wasted  in  the  lower 
grades  by  having  pupils  laboriously  look  up  the  mean- 
ings of  words  without  getting  any  understanding  of  them. 
It  is  in  every  sense  mechanical.  The  habit  of  consulting 
a  dictionary  is  a  good  one,  but  it  is  not  very  profitable 
before  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade.  It  is  better  to  defer 
this  until  the  child  is  mentally  able  to  be  benefited  than  to 
disgust  it  with  so  much  unprofitable  work.  Talks  about 
the  meaning  of  the  words  in  the  lesson  and  having  pupils 
give  sentences  containing  the  words  and  to  recall  where 
they  have  seen  them  in  their  reading,  is  an  excellent  thing 
to  increase  the  pupil's  vocabulary  as  well  as  to  fasten 
the  word  in  its  correct  form  on  the  child's  mind. 

When  the  pupil  has  advanced  far  enough  to  prepare 
the  lesson  by  himself,  the  teacher's  task  is  principally  in 
testing  the  preparation,  in  stimulating  to  study,  and  more 
important  still,  directing  in  the  proper  methods  of  study. 
There  is  so  much  time  wasted  in  the  study  of  spelling 
because  pupils  do  not  know  how  to  study.  The  follow- 
ing suggestions  for  the  study  of  the  lesson  may  be  found 
useful,  whatever  the^  method  or  device  is  used  in  the 
recitation : — 

1.  Have  pupils  carefully  and  thoughtfully  study  the 
lesson  a   few  times,  and  then   write  the  words.      This 
is  better  than  simply  looking  at  the  words,  even  if  it 
be  a  pupil  whom  we  may  call  eye-minded,  because  by 
using  the  muscles  in  making  the  consecutive  letters  it 
enforces  the  form  on  the  memory. 

2.  The  spelling  of  a  word  aloud  is  a  good  practice. 
To  avoid  the  confusion  which  would  result  in  this  kind 


SPELLING  147 

of  study  in  the  school-room,  have  pupils  study  their  spall- 
ing  aloud  at  home,  slowly  and  thoughtfully,  a  few  times. 

3.  Have  pupils  form  the  habit  of  looking  over  the 
spelling  lesson  carefully  and  striking  out  the  words  they 
are  sure  they  know  how  to  spell.      This  will  be  a  won- 
derful time  saver,  and  will  direct  the  pupil's  energy  where 
it  is  n&ded.      So  often  pupils  use  as  much  energy  on 
the  words  they  are  sure  they  can  spell  as  upon  the  others, 
and  the  watchful  teacher  will  help  them  to  a  better  use  of 
their  time  and  energy. 

4.  Teach  pupils  to  give  their  undivided  attention  to 
the  work  at  hand.      Perhaps  there  is  no  study  in  the 
school  course  where  divided  attention  will  accomplish  less. 
It  does  not  require  the  long-continued  attention  of  algebra 
or  geometry,  but  if  in  these  subjects  which  appeal  to 
the  reason  the  attention  is  thrown  off  for  a  moment,  the 
chain  of  reasoning  may  be  taken  up  again ;    but  in  spell- 
ing the  word  is  the  unit,  and  if  once  the  attention  wavers, 
the  whole  effort  is  lost  and  must  be  repeated.      In  spell- 
ing, the  repetition  is  apt  to  become  mechanical  and  the 
pupil  believes  himself  actually  studying  when  he  is  not. 
Mind-wandering  is   to  be   deprecated   at  any   time,   but 
nowhere  more  than  when  an  image  of  a  word  is  to  be 
stamped   in  the   mind   with   integrity. 

5.  Arrange   for  pupils  to  study  their  spelling  when 
their   minds   are   not    fatigued.       An   arbitrary   memory 
study  above  all  others  requires  all  the  vigor  of  the  mind. 
The   memory   of   these   arbitrary    facts,   like   the   letters 
of  a  word,  is  the  first  power  of  the  mind  to  feel  the 
weariness  of  overwork,  and  far  better  rest  the  mind  than 
try  to  apply  it  to  such  subjects  and  to  acquire  the  slug- 
gish habit  of  snoozing  over  them. 


148  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

&.  Keep  a  list  of  words  misspelled,  and  review  them 
frequently  until  pupils  are  thoroughly  familiar  with 
them. 

RECREATIONS  AND  DEVICES. 

1.  In  written  spelling  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  di- 
vide  the   class    into    two    sections   by   numbering  them 
"one/'   "two,"   "one,"   "two,"   "one,"   "two,"   etc.,   to 
the  end  of  the  class.      Then  pronounce  the  words  alter- 
nately to  the  sections.      While  all  in  section  "  one  "  are 
writing  their  first  word,  the  teacher  may  be  pronouncing 
to  section  "  two."      It  removes  the  temptation  to  copy 
a  word  from  a  pupil  near  by  and  will  create  rivalry  be- 
tween the  sections. 

2.  A  good  device  in  oral  spelling  to  train  attention 
and  to  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  when  a  word  is 
spelled  correctly  is  for  the  teacher  to  give  no  attention 
to  a  word  misspelled  but  pronounce  the  next  word  to 
the   next   pupil.       If   this   pupil    has   not   observed   the 
mistake  of  the  one  just  above,  he  spells  the  word  pro- 
nounced, and  any  subsequent  pupil,  however  far  down  in 
the  class,  if  he  noted  the  mistake,  may  spell  the  word 
when  his  time  to  spell  comes,  and  then  pass  above  all 
who  failed  to  observe  the  mistake. 

3.  A  similar  device  is  for  the  teacher  often  to  pass 
a  word  correctly  spelled  to  the  next  pupil  just  as  if  it 
had  been  misspelled.      If  the  pupil  has  self-confidence 
enough  to  spell   it  the   same  way,  all   is  right;    but  if 
he  does  not  know  how  to  spell  it,  the  chances  are  he 
will  spell  it  differently,  and  this  is  regarded  as  a  word 
missed.      This  is  an  excellent  device  to   cultivate  self- 
confidence. 


SPELLING  149 

4.  Have  pupils  stand  and  spell  words  beginning  with 
the  same  letter,  no  word  to  be  spelled  more  than  once. 
If  one  fails  to  spell  a  word  or  spells  a  word  which  has 
been  previously  spelled,  he  must  be  seated.  See  who 
can  stand  longest. 

5.  Have  pupils  stand  as  above,  and  let  the  teacher 
pronounce  a  word  to  the  first  pupil.  The  second  must 
take  the  last  letter  of  the  first  word  and  make  it  the 
first  letter  of  the  second  word,  and  so  on,  no  word  to 
be  repeated.  For  example,  the  teacher  gives  the  first 
pupil  the  word  "  house."  The  second  pupil  must  spell 
a  word  beginning  with  "  e,"  as  the  word  "  ever."  Now 
the  third  pupil  must  spell  a  word  beginning  with  "  r," 
as  "  run."  The  fourth  must  spell  a  word  beginning 
with  "  n,"  etc.  Any  pupil  failing  to  spell  a  word  or 
repeating  a  word  spelled  before  must  be  seated. 

6.  A  very  successful  device  which  is  often  used 
when  pupils  do  not  use  a  spelling  book,  is  to  select  ten 
words  each  day,  common  words,  but  words  often  mis- 
spelled, and  have  them  written  correctly  on  the  black- 
board. The  pupils  study  them  as  carefully  as  they  would 
a  lesson  in  a  spelling  book.  When  the  time  for  the 
recitation  in  spelling  comes,  the  words  are  erased  from 
the  board  and  then  pronounced  to  the  class,  who  write 
them.  When  all  are  written,  the  teacher  calls  mis- 
cellaneously for  pupils  to  stand  and  spell  the  word  as 
they  have  spelled  it  on  their  paper.  Then  some  one 
is  sent  to  the  board  to  place  the  correct  form  on  the 
board  again.  The  teacher  keeps  a  record  of  how  many 
in  the  class  missed  each  of  the  various  words.  From 
this  list  he  knows  what  words  to  review.  Words  in 
review  may  be  pronounced  at  any  subsequent  lesson 


150  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

without  placing  on  the  board.  If  the  words  are  care- 
fully chosen  by  the  teacher,  some  excellent  results  may 
be  obtained. 

7.  The  old  method  of  choosing  sides  and  then  spell- 
ing down,  having  two  pupils  spelling  at  a  time,  often 
grows  tiresome,  especially  if  there  are  a  few  good  spell- 
ers who  monopolize  the  time.  This  may  be  obviated  by 
having  the  two  pupils  who  choose  up  to  stand  in  op- 
posite corners  of  the  room.  As  each  pupil  is  chosen, 
he  takes  his  place  in  the  order  of  choosing  at  the  right 
of  his  captain.  When  the  school  is  divided,  all  on  one 
side  are  called  No.  i  and  all  on  the  other  side  No.  2. 
Each  £upil  keeps  his  number,  regardless  of  change,  until 
the  end  of  the  spelling.  Two  trusty  pupils,  one  from 
each  side,  are  chosen  to  keep  tally.  The  first  word  is 
given  to  the  captain  of  side  No.  i,  and  when  the  word 
is  spelled  the  captain  walks  across  the  floor  to  the  foot 
of  No.  2,  and  as  he  crosses  the  floor,  he  calls  his 
number  distinctly.  The  two  persons  keeping  tally  reg- 
ister this  by  giving  side  No.  i  one  mark  or  tally.  The 
teacher  pronounces  in  regular  order  down  side  No.  i. 
If  any  words  are  misspelled  pupils  pass  above  just  as 
they  would  in  a  spelling  class.  When  all  on  side  No.  i 
have  spelled,  the  teacher  passes  to  the  captain  of  No. 
2.  When  he  spells,  he  crosses  over  to  the  foot  of  side 
No.  i,  calling  distinctly  his  number,  and  the  secretaries 
credit  side  No.  2  with  a  tally,  and  the  spelling  continues 
down  side  No.  2.  In  the  same  way  the  one  who  now 
stands  head  in  side  No.  i,  after  spelling  his  word,  calls 
his  number  and  takes  his  place  at  the  foot  of  No.  2. 
The  process  is  continued  at  pleasure.  In  a  little  while 
by  pupils  missing  words  the  sides  will  become  mixed, 
but  each  pupil  keeps  his  original  number,  and  when  he 


SPELLING  151 

crosses  to  the  other  side  of  the  room,  calls  out  this 
number,  and  his  side  is  given  a  credit.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  best  spellers  will  cross  from  one  side  of  the 
room  to  the  other  oftener  than  the  poor  spellers,  thus 
giving  their  side  more  credits.  The  side  which  has  most 
credits  is  considered  victorious.  It  has  two  advantages 
over  the  old  plan : — 

(1)  It  keeps  all  the  pupils  busy,  and  gives  the  small- 
est pupils  and  the  poorer  spellers  the  same  drill  in  spell- 
ing as  the  largest  pupils  and  the  best  spellers. 

(2)  Two   or   more   persons   may   pronounce   at   the 
same  time,  keeping  a  little  distance  apart,  and  thus  get 
more  drill  in  the   same  length  of  time. 

8.  An   interesting  game   for  a  small  class   of  small 
pupils  is  "  Pussy  Wants  a  Corner/'     One  pupil  is  pussy, 
who  stands  off  to  one  side!     Words  are  pronounced  to 
the   class.      When  a   word   is   missed,   "  pussy "    has   a 
chance  to  spell  it.      If    the    word    is    correctly    spelled, 
"  pussy  "  takes  her  place  in  the  class,  and  the  pupil  who 
missed  becomes  "  pussy,"  and  so  on. 

9.  A  useful  plan  in  written  spelling  is  to  have  the 
words  written  in  one  column.      Opposite  each  word  in 
the  next  column  may  be  the  part  of  speech,  in  another  a 
synonym,  and  in  a  fourth  column  a  sentence  containing 
the  word. 

10.  To  cultivate  attention,  give  each  pupil  a  number, 
then  pronounce  a  word  and  call  the  number  of  the  pupil 
who  is  to  spell  it.      This  miscellaneous  calling  to  spell 
will  keep  each  one  on  the  alert  to  understand  the  word 
and  to  be  ready  to  spell  should  you  call  the  number. 
Numbers  are  more  readily  called  than  names,  and  re- 
quire closer  attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 


XXI.    ARITHMETIC 

ARITHMETIC  has  long  held  sway  in  the  popular  mind 
as  being  the  subject  of  greatest  importance  in  the  com- 
mon-school course.  It  is  looked  upon  as  being  of  great 
practical  value  in  life,  and  essential  to  a  business  career. 
It  is  not  an  uncommon  statement  to  hear  a  father  say 
he  wants  his  boy  to  learn  arithmetic  whether  he  knows 
anything  else  or  not.  The  one  great  essential  in  the 
early  schoolmaster  was  that  he  be  able  to  do  the  sums. 
It  mattered  little  whether  he  knew  anything  else  or  not. 
To  him  all  manner  of  arithmetic  puzzles  were  referred, 
and  if  he  could  not  "  do  "  them,  he  was  regarded  as  "  no 
good." 

The  preference  which  arithmetic  won  in  this  early 
day  may  be  waning,  but  it  is  far  from  being  lost.  New 
subjects  have  knocked  loud  and  fast  at  the  door  of  our 
early  school  curriculum,  and  a  number  have  been  ad- 
mitted, but  arithmetic  still  holds  and  will  continue  to 
hold  a  good  share  of  attention.  There  is  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  the  mere  practical  or  commercial  value  of 
arithmetic  has  been  overestimated  and  is  at  present  over- 
estimated. The  man  in  business  uses  comparatively  little 
arithmetic  compared  with  what  the  uninitiated  think  he 
uses.  He  rarely  has  a  problem  in  complex  fractions. 
His  banker  counts  the  interest  on  his  note,  not  by  the 
old-fashioned  aliquot  parts  or  the  hundred  per  cent, 
method,  but  by  the  help  of  a  book  where  all  the  calcu- 
lations are  made  and  he  has  but  to  add  the  results.  The 
long  columns  of  figures  to  be  added  are  now  added  by 

152 


ARITHMETIC  153 

a  machine  made  for  the  purpose,  and  the  results  are 
absolutely  correct.  Thus  much  of  the  early  arithmetic 
which  we  learned,  thinking  we  would  use  it  constantly 
when  we  were  men,  is  now  largely  obsolete.  Few  of  us 
ever  use  partial  payments,  compound  interest,  allegation, 
cube  root,  and  a  number  of  other  subjects  treated  in  al- 
most every  complete  arithmetic,  and  a  majority  of  our 
business  men,  and  many  of  our  most  successful  business 
men,  would  find  it  hard  to  solve  a  large  number  of  such 
problems.  It  is  evident  to  any  one  who  thinks  that  the 
commercial  value  of  arithmetic  is  greatly  overestimated 
in  the  popular  mind. 

THE;  CULTURE:  VAUJE. 

Arithmetic  and  the  other  branches  of  mathematics 
have  been  for  centuries  valued  for  the  discipline  they 
afford.  Probably  no  study  in  the  school  course  develops 
the  mind  in  so  many  different  ways.  Not  a  faculty 
but  is  exercised  in  studying  arithmetic  if  it  is  studied 
properly,  and  it  may  be  adapted  to  the  mind  at  any  stage 
of  its  growth.  Arithmetic  gives  some  culture  to  mem- 
ory and  to  perception,  although  at  first  we  might  over- 
Io6k  the  fact.  It  requires  complete  mental  concentration, 
and  thus  offers  a  high  form  of  culture  to  the  attention. 
It  gives,  in  the  advanced  work,  constant  exercise  to  the 
judgment,  and  trains  it  to  the  closest  discriminations. 
Then  every  derived  equation  is  a  logical  deduction  from 
those  preceding,  and  is  reached  by  continuous  reasoning, 
developing  the  reasoning  powers.  Some  of  its  truths 
are  axiomatic,  and  are  comprehended  as  an  act  of  intui- 
tion. Many  parts  require  an  exercise  of  the  imagination, 
and  the  definitions  require  the  nicest  kind  of  discrimina- 
tion between  ideas  and  their  expression.  It  is  true  its 
conclusions  are  definite,  specific,  and  capable  of  verifica- 


154  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

tion,  and  from  this  cause  does  not  train  in  probable 
reasoning  as  in  questions  of  social,  political,  and  eco- 
nomic problems.  It  gives,  however,  more  than  any  other 
school  study,  mental  power,  logical  habits  of  thought,  and 
training  in  persistency.  Our  texts  on  arithmetic  may 
need  pruning;  some  subjects  should  be  omitted  and 
placed  in  the  appendix,  some  of  the  puzzles  assigned  to 
algebra  where  they  belong ;  but  unless  many  of  the  newer 
subjects  in  our  curriculum  can  show  culture  value  of  the 
highest  type,  we  should  not  be  too  radical  in  our  changes 
in  arithmetic. 

Too  much  time  is  spent  in  arithmetic  for  the  results 
achieved.     This  is  due  to  several  causes : — 

1.  There  is  lack  of  intensity  in  the  study.     Children 
are  allowed  to  snooze  over  their  work,  to  acquire  habits 
of  mental  indolence,  to  let  their  thoughts  go  wool-gath- 
ering, to  kill  time  instead  of  learning  clear,  sharp  busi- 
ness methods. 

2.  There  is  too  much  formalism.     We  hold  to  form 
and   neglect   content.      We   give   more   attention   to   the 
husks  than  to  the  corn,  to  the  exterior  form  than  to  the 
thought  back  of  it.     The  hundred  per  cent,  method*  in 
percentage,  excellent  as  it  is,  may  be  reduced  to  little  else 
than  a  set  form.     I  remember  well  one  of  my  teachers 
who  was  such  a  stickler  for  form.     He  would  receive 
nothing  unless  it  were  arranged  according  to  a  specific 
model.    I  recall  one  problem  in  compound  interest  placed 
on  the  board  in  which  there  were  forty-four  equations. 
Not  an  equation  short  of  that  would  have  been  accepted, 
and  the  class  were  gulled  into  the  notion  that  we  were 
studying  arithmetic.     A  study  of  the  history  of  arith- 
metic shows  the  old  method  of  number  work  in  which 
long  division  was  made  longer  still  by  being  arranged  in 


ARITHMETIC  155 

fantastic  shapes  resembling  ships,  etc.     What  lessons  the 
history  of  pedagogy  might  teach  to  the  thoughtful. 

3.  Pupils  are  not  trained  to  read  the  problem  and  to 
grasp  the  conditions.     Fifteen  years'  experience  with  ad- 
vanced classes  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  much  of  the 
trouble  comes  from  lack  of  power  to  read.     It  is  their 
English  rather  than  their  arithmetic  which  is  at  fault. 

4.  Pupils  are  not  trained  to  accuracy  in  the  four  fun- 
damental processes.    They  cannot  add,  subtract,  multiply, 
and  divide.     It  is  said  the  superior  work  in  arithmetic 
in  the  German  schools  is  due  to  the  long  and  excellent 
drill  given  in  the  fundamental  processes.     Then,  when 
the  pupils  come  to  the  advanced  work,  they  are  not  handi- 
capped by  inaccuracies  on  the  mechanical  side. 

5.  Arithmetic  is  taught  in  scraps  and  fragments  in- 
stead  of  as   one   logical   whole.     Each   new   subject   is 
taught   as   something   separate   and   apart   from  all   the 
others.     Pupils  are  pushed  into  the  new  subject  without 
taking  an  inventory  of  what  they  already  know  which 
will  apply  to  the  subject.     There  are  comparatively  few 
things  to  learn  in  any  of  the  subjects  in  arithmetic  which 
are  entirely  new,  but  the  study  of  each  subject  should 
be  preceded  by  a  review  of  what  is  already  known  and 
what  must  be  used  again  in  the  new  subject. 

6.  Mental  arithmetic  is  neglected.     There  is  nothing 
better  than  mental  arithmetic  to  pave  the  way  for  ad- 
vanced work  in  written  arithmetic.     The  teacher  states 
the  problem  orally,  the  pupil  states  the  conditions,  and 
then  gives  a  good  logical  solution  and  the  conclusion, — 
what  can  be  better  training  for  advanced  arithmetic?    A 
neglect  of  mental  arithmetic  leads  to  poor  interpretation 
of  the  condition  of  the  problems  of  written  arithmetic. 


156  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

AIMS    IN    TEACHING    ARITHMETIC. 

Good  teaching  of  arithmetic  should  accomplish  these 
ends,  and  in  the  order  named : — 

i.  Accuracy.  This  should  include  accuracy  in  result, 
accuracy  in  reasoning,  and  accuracy  in  expression.  Math- 
ematics is  an  exact  science.  The  arithmetic  in  after  life 
which  is  not  exact  to  the  unit  is  of  poor  quality.  We 
accept  as  high-grade  work  in  class  a  solution  of  nine 
problems  out  of  ten.  It  is  no  wonder  boys  thus  trained 
are  found  short  when  tested  by  the  business  man's  stan- 
dard. How  long  would  the  banker  hold  his  place  if  one 
out  of  ten  of  his  results  was  wrong?  Suppbse  the  clerk 
makes  but  seventy-five  per  cent,  in  his  business  calcu- 
lations, would  he  pass?  Yet  that  would  give  a  passing 
grade  to  most  pupils  in  school,  even  if  the  testing  were 
only  upon  results  alone.  But  there  should  be  accuracy 
in  reasoning  as  well.  Pupils  must  be  trained  to  give  the 
reason  for  their  operations.  We  are  content  if  pupils 
call  numerical  results,  but  it  is  far  better  training  for 
pupils  to  tell  first  what  the  result  will  be  by  naming  it, 
and  then  later  give  its  numerical  value.  If  you  want  to 
find  the  value  of  a  field  80  rds.  long  and  40  rds.  wide  at 
$10.00  per  acre,  have  pupils  explain  that  they  multiply 
the  length  of  the  field  by  the  breadth,  which  will  give  its 
area  in  square  rods,  or  3200  sq.  rds.  Then  there  are  160 
sq.  rds.  in  an  acre,  and  there  will  be  as  many  acres  in  the 
field  as  160  is  contained  times  in  3200,  which  is  20.  If 
one  acre  costs  $10.00,  twenty  acres  will  cost  twenty  times 
$10.00,  or  $200.00.  Therefore  the  value  of  a  field  80 
rds.  long  and  40  rds.  wide  at  $10.00  per  acre  is  $200.00. 

So  many  of  our  teachers  are  content  with  the  mere 
manipulations  of  figures.  The  emphatic  part  of  the 


ARITHMETIC  157 

above  is  that  when  you  multiply  the  length  of  the  Held 
by  the  width  it  will  give  you  the  area  of  the  Held,  while 
too  often  we  emphasize  the  numerical  result  3200  until 
the  pupil  loses  sight  of  the  fact  that  it  is  the  area  of  the 
field.  The  name  of  the  result  and  its  numerical  value 
cannot  be  divorced  without  detriment  to  the  child.  Ac- 
curacy in  expression  must  be  insisted  upon.  It  is  not 
an  uncommon  thing  to  see  two  equations  joined  in  one, 
as,  6  X  5  =3®  +  7-  Now  six  times  five  does  not  equal 
thirty-seven.  Numerous  inaccuracies  in  expression,  in- 
dicative too  often  of  looseness  in  thinking,  creep  in,  and 
we  must  be  on  our  guard  to  prevent  them.  The  first 
aim  of  our  work  in  arithmetic,  then,  should  be  accuracy. 

2.  Rapidity.  This  is  the  age  of  lightning  speed. 
Time  is  precious.  Speed  is  valuable.  The  labored  writ- 
ing is  out  of  date,  and  the  man  who  is  not  quick  as 
well  as  accurate  in  arithmetical  calculations  is  badly 
handicapped  in  business,  and  the  teaching  that  does  not 
train  in  quickness  as  well  as  in  accuracy  is  not  the  best 
teaching  of  arithmetic. 

j.  Neatness.  This  is  not  as  important  as  the  other 
two,  but  it  is  far  too  important  to  be  overlooked.  Pupils 
from  the  very  first  should  be  trained  to  arrange  their 
work  so  that  others  may  be  able  to  read  it  easily  and 
understand  it  readily.  Good  taste  may  be  cultivated  and 
at  the  same  time  originality,  and  this  is  worth  much  in 
many  ways  in  after  life.  The  solution  on  the  blackboard 
that  cannot  be  followed  by  the  stranger  who  steps  into 
the  room,  provided  he  understands  arithmetic,  is  lacking 
in  one  very  valuable  feature.  Logical  thinking  is  apt 
to  lead  to  logical  arrangement  of  the  work,  and  on  the 


158  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

other  hand,  training  in  careful  arrangement  of  work  will 
help  to  logical  thinking. 

THINGS  TO  EMPHASIZE. 

Before  taking  up  any  specific  parts  of  arithmetic  for 
discussion,  there  are  some  things  to  point  out  which  be- 
long to  the  subject  as  a  whole  and  which  lie  at  the  basis 
of  good  teaching  of  arithmetic : — 

1.  See  that  pupils  get  correct  ideas  of  number.     This 
may  be  done  by  the  use  of  objects  and  careful  associa- 
tion of  the  idea  of  numbers  with  objects  in  the  early 
stages  of  number  work.     Too  often  number  is  confused 
with  the  symbol  of  number.     Children  think  of  figures 
instead  of  numbers.     The  symbol  4  is  too  often  to  them 
the  number  four.     Five  dollars  to  them  is  the  figure  5 
with  the  dollar  mark  to  the  left.     Three  feet  is  the  figure 
3  with  ft.  written  to  the  right.     After  they  have  been 
taught  to  look  back  of  the  symbol  to  the  thing  symbolized, 
it    is    necessary    for   them   to   get   clear   conceptions    of 
standards  of  length,  capacity,  weight,  etc.     They  should 
learn  to  measure  the  foot,  the  yard,  and  the  inch  by  the 
eye  as  well  as  by  the  yard-stick.      Note  what  wild  esti- 
mates even  high  school  pupils  make  in  guessing  distance, 
largely  because  they  have  never  had  a  clear  conception  of 
the  standard  of  length  in  mind.     Many  children  in  the 
grammar  grades  have  little  conception  of  a  quart  or  a 
gallon  or  a  bushel.     Institute  work  has  revealed  to  me 
that  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  teachers  do  not  know  that 
there  is  a  difference  in  capacity  between  a  dry  and  a 
liquid  quart,  or  a  dry  and  a  liquid  pint,  to  say  nothing 
of  having  a  clear  conception  of  the  size  of  them. 

2.  Teach  ideas  instead  of  words.      Teach  pupils  to 
go  back  of  symbols  to  the  thought.    Teach  that  fractions 


ARITHMETIC  159 

are  parts  of  things,  and  that  they  are  expressed  by  two 
numbers,  one  above  the  other,  a  short  horizontal  line  be- 
tween. Do  not  confuse  the  fraction  with  its  expression. 
Decimals  are  fractions  whose  indicated  denominator  is 
ten  or  some  power  of  ten.  The  difference  between  com- 
mon fractions  and  decimals  is  in  the  way  they  are  ex- 
pressed. Principles  should  precede  rules,  and  the  pupils 
should  understand  the  terms.  I  do  not  advocate  that 
pupils  should  never  commit  the  language  of  the  book, 
but  the  teacher  must  make  sure  that  they  understand 
the  language  first. 

3.  Each  new  subject  should  be  correlated  with  the 
subjects  that  have  preceded  it.      See  that  pupils  get  the 
relation  of  facts  and  new  principles  to  those  they  have 
already  learned.     Each  new  term  should  be   explained 
and   understood,   and  the   old  knowledge   reviewed   and 
made  ready  for  use  in  the  new  subject.    It  is  the  constant 
recalling  and  re-enforcing  of  the  old  knowledge  and  its 
use   in   its   logical   connection   which   makes   it   effective 
and  gives  mental  power.     When  the  class  study  decimals 
they  must  be  able  to  readily  recall  and  use  any  principles 
of  common  fractions  they  have  already  learned.     When 
they  study  percentage,  they  have  very  little  new  to  learn 
if  they  are  apt  in  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
decimals.      If   they   learn   percentage   properly,   there   is 
little  else  to  learn  in  interest. 

4.  Insist  upon  accuracy  in  the  fundamental  operations 
of  addition,    subtraction,    multiplication,    and    division. 
These  subjects  do  not  get  enough  attention.     Pupils  by 
long,  laborious,  and  continual  effort  solve  the  problems 
given  in  their  text-books  in  these  subjects.     If  it  requires 
a  third  or  a  tenth  trial  it  matters  not,  just  so  they  get 
the  answer.     This  kind  of  work  will  not  suffice.     They 


160  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

need  drill  —  quick,  spirited,  lively  drill  —  until  their  re- 
sults may  be  depended  upon.  We  lose  much  time  by 
rushing  pupils  on  into  the  more  intricate  processes  and 
problems  requiring  close  discrimination  and  reason  be- 
fore the  reasoning  powers  are  capable  of  development. 
This  time  should  be  spent  in  perfecting  them  in  the  more 
mechanical  processes  and  making  them  accurate,  and  the 
time  lost  here  will  be  regained  tenfold  by  quickness  in 
the  solution  of  problems  later.  Percentage  with  all  of 
its  various  applications  should  be  taught  to  a  class  in  one 
month  if  they  were  properly  prepared.  Nine  tenths  of 
the  trouble  and  time  is  in  correcting  mistakes  in  the  fun- 
damental operations,  and  not  in  the  principles  and  ap- 
plications peculiar  to  percentage.  Take  that  subject,  the 
bug-bear  to  pupils  and  teacher  alike,  partial  payments. 
More  than  three  fourths  of  the  time  lost  upon  it  is  caused 
not  by  the  number  and  difficulty  of  its  principles,  but  in 
correcting  mistakes  in  the  fundamental  operations.  The 
pupil  makes  a  slight  mistake  in  multiplying  near  the  first 
of  the  problem,  or  a  mistake  in  subtracting  the  dates, 
and  a  long  solution  must  be  performed  again.  Confused, 
tired,  disgusted  perhaps,  with  the  whole  thing,  he  thinks 
partial  payments  are  hard,  and  "  he  knows  nothing  about 
it,"  and  the  teacher  agrees  with  him  most  heartily.  The 
pupil  concludes  it  is  partial  payments  that  is  hard,  when 
the  fact  is,  it  is  his  addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplica- 
tion which  are  at  fault. 

Let  me  insist  that  teachers  make  their  pupils  accurate 
in  the  fundamental  operations  early.  Drill,  drill,  give 
credit  for  getting  the  answer  the  first  time.  Do  not 
hurry.  The  fourth  year  class,  accurate  and  quick  and 
well  drilled  in  the  fundamental  operations  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  will  complete  the  practical  arithmetic  well  in 


ARITHMETIC  161 

three  more  years,  with  the  eighth  year  to  review  the 
subject  as  a  whole.  Our  pupils  begin  number  work  as 
a  study  too  young,  and  are  trained  to  inaccuracy  and 
indolent  habits.  The  child  who  begins  number  work  at 
eight,  when  ten  years  old  will  often  surpass  the  child  who 
began  the  work  at  six,  and  spent  two  years  learning 
indolent  habits  in  dealing  with  numbers. 

5.  Before  the  class  takes  up  a  new  subject,  let  the 
teacher  arrange  definitely  the  definitions  and  principles 
and  new  facts  which  are  essential  to  the  understanding  of 
the  new  subject.  With  these  definitely  in  mind  and  with 
the  principles  already  learned  by  the  pupils  clearly  before 
the  teacher,  a  little  planning  on  the  teacher's  part  will 
make  it  possible  for  him  to  get  good  results  with  the  least 
waste  of  time. 

PARTICULAR    SUBJECTS    DISCUSSED. 

Oral  Number. — In  the  last  few  years  there  has  been 
much  discussion  of  methods  of  teaching  primary  number, 
the  Grube,  the  Ratio,  and  other  methods  being  quite 
prominent.  These  can  be  found  discussed  in  school 
journals  and  books  prepared  especially  on  number  work. 
An  enthusiastic  teacher  who  believes  in  his  method,  and 
has  an  earnest  desire  to  get  results  with  the  children,  will 
succeed  with  either  of  the  various  methods.  The  Grube 
method  was  very  popular  a  few  years  ago,  and  still  has 
many  wise  and  skilful  adherents.  Its  basis  of  instruc- 
tion is  the  individual  number  instead  of  the  operation, 
and  from  the  start,  the  four  fundamental  processes  are 
taught  together.  In  teaching  any  number,  all  possible 
operations  within  the  limits  of  the  number  are  made. 

As  stated  above,  the  method  used  is  of  less  impor- 
tance than  a  determination  on  the  teacher's  part  to  get 
results.  Do  not,  in  country  schools,  disgust  boys  and 
11 


162  MANAGEMENT  AND  METHODS 

girls  with  number  work  too  simple.  Few  country  boys 
of  the  rough-and-tumble  kind,  start  to  school  without 
knowing  how  to  count.  They  know  they  must  give  old 
Charley  five  ears  of  corn,  the  work  horses  seven,  and 
the  mules  three  each  feed.  They  know  how  many  pigs 
each  sow  has,  and  how  many  eggs  old  Speck  sat  on,  how 
many  chickens  she  hatched,  and  how  many  spoiled  eggs 
they  got  to  take  up  in  the  orchard  to  break.  The  country 
boy  has  argued  the  question  with  his  younger  sister,  that 
there  being  five  eggs  to  break,  he  should  break  three  of 
them  and  she  two,  and  the  argument  was  so  convincing 
that  it  wound  up  by  his  getting  to  throw  four  instead  of 
three.  That  at  least  was  my  experience  as  a  country 
boy.  I  do  not  remember  the  time  when  I  could  not  make 
any  combination  of  numbers  as  high  as  ten.  I  went 
through  Ray's  old  Practical  Arithmetic  the  winter  I  was 
ten  years  old,  including  the  one  hundred  miscellaneous 
problems  and  the  metric  system  at  the  back  of  the  book. 
It  never  occurred  to  me  then,  or  now,  that  I  was  above 
the  average  boy  in  arithmetical  ability. 

Addition. — A  decimal  system  of  numbers  is  a  system 
in  which  ten  is  the  radix.  Ones  are  grouped  into  tens ; 
tens  into  tens  of  tens  or  hundreds,  etc.  Explain  and 
illustrate  this  grouping  by  bundles  of  splints. 

Explain  the  sign  of  addition  and  its  meaning.  Like 
numbers  only  can  be  added. 

Teach  the  addition  table  thoroughly.  There  are  but 
forty-five  combinations  possible.  These  are : — 


1  +  2=3 

1  +  4  =  5 
1  +  5=6 

2  +  2  =  4 
2  +  3  =  5 
2+4  =  6 
2  +  5  =  7 
2  +  6  =  8 

3  +  3  =  6 

3  +  4  =  7 
3  +  5  =  8 
3  +  6  =  9 
3  +  7  =  10 

ARITHMETIC  163 


1  -+ 

-  6  = 

7 

2  - 

f  7 

=  9 

3  - 

[-8  = 

11 

1  -f 

-7  = 

8 

2  - 

f  8 

=  10 

3  - 

h9= 

12 

1  4- 

— 

9 

2  - 

f  9 

=  11 

1  -f 

-  9  = 

10 

4  -f 

4  = 

8 

5  - 

1-  5 

=  10 

6  H 

h6  = 

12 

4  4 

•  5  = 

9 

5  - 

f-  6 

-j  -J 

6  - 

h7  = 

13 

4  -f 

6  = 

10 

5  - 

1-7 

=  12 

6  - 

h  8  = 

14 

4  •+ 

•7  = 

11 

5  - 

f-8 

—  13 

6  H 

-  9  = 

15 

4  + 

8  = 

12 

5  - 

h  9 

=  14 

4  + 

9  = 

13 

7  + 

7  = 

14 

8  - 

h8 

=-16 

9  H 

-   9= 

18 

7  + 

8  = 

15 

8-t 

-  9 

=  17 

7  + 

9  = 

16 

Vary  these  in  every  possible  way.  Drill  until  the 
combinations  are  firmly  and  indelibly  made  in  the  mind. 
Teach  pupils  to  add  by  endings.  Show  that  any  num- 
ber added  to  9  gives  the  right-hand  figure  one  less  than 
the  number  added  to  it.  Thus  9  and  8  give  the  right 
hand  figure  a  7,  etc.  Make  all  possible  combinations  with 
9.  Show  that  any  number  added  to  8  gives  the  right- 
hand  figure  two  less  than  the  number  added.  Thus  5  and 
8  give  the  right  hand  figure  3.  Make  all  possible  com- 
binations. Continue  with  the  other  numbers. 

Give  a  number  of  problems  for  seat  or  home  work, 
and  for  oral  practice  in  the  recitation.  After  the  endings 
are  learned,  hold  to  accurate,  rapid  work.  Take  the 
following  :  — 


483 
878 
967 
745 


164  MANAGEMENT  AND  METHODS 

Teach  pupils  to  add,  simply  calling  12,  20,  23,  27,  as 
they  add  the  first  column.  Leave  out  all  and's  and  are's. 
Then  as  the  second  column  is  added  they  should  point, 
saying  rapidly,  6,  12,  19,  27,  29.  Then  in  the  third  9,  18 
26,  30,  33. 

Lead  them  to  answer  the  following  questions :  How 
were  the  above  numbers  written  for  addition?  Why? 
Which  column  was  added  first?  Why?  When  the  sum 
of  any  column  was  more  than  ten,  what  was  done  ?  Why  ? 
When  the  answers  to  these  questions  are  clear  to  them, 
let  them  formulate  the  rule  for  addition. 

What  must  be  true  of  numbers  before  they  can  be 
combined  into  one  sum?  What  is  the  denomination  of 
the  sum? 

Teach  pupils  the  tests  of  accuracy : — 

1.  Add  the  columns  in   reverse  order. 

2.  Separate  the  problems  into  two  or  more  problems 
and  unite  the  results. 

3.  The  excess  of  g's  in  the  sum  of  the  digits  in  the 
addends  must  equal  the  excess  of  9's  in  the  sum  of  the 
digits. 

Subtraction. — Teach  the  sign  of  subtraction  and  its 
meaning.  Arrange  the  subtraction  table  and  drill 
thoroughly  in  the  eighty-one  primary  problems.  Nei- 
ther rapidity  nor  accuracy  can  be  possible  until  the  differ- 
ence between  the  following  pairs  of  numbers  can  be 
given  readily:  — 

2  —  1       3  —  1      4  —  1      5  —  1      6  —  1      7  —  1 

3  —  2      4  —  2      5  —  2       6  —  2      7  —  2 

4—3      5—3      6—3      7—3 

5—4      6—4      7—4 
6—5      7—5 

7-6 


ARITHMETIC  165 

8  —  1      9  —  1  10  —  1  11  —  2  12—3    13  —  4 

8  —  2       9  —  2  10—2  11—3  12—4     13  —  5 

8  —  3      9—3  10—3  11—4  12—5    13  —  6 

8  —  4      9—4  10—4  11  —  5  12  —  6     13  —  7 

8  —  5      9  —  5  10  —  5  11  —  6  12  —  7    13  —  8 

8  —  6      9  —  6  10  —  6  11  —  7  12—8    13-9 

8  —  7      9  —  7  10  —  7  11  —  8  12  —  9 

9  —  8  10  —  8  11  —  9  12  —  10 

10  —  9  11  —  10  12  —  11 

14  —  5  15  —  6     16  —  7    17  —  8    18  —  9 

14__6  15  —  7    16  —  8    17  —  9 

14  —  7  15  —  8    16  —  9 

14  —  8  15  —  9 
14  —  9 

There  are  two  methods  of  "  borrowing."  One  re- 
duces the  digits  in  the  minuend,  and  the  other  increases 
the  digits  in  the  subtrahend.  It  matters  not  which  the 
teacher  uses.  In  a  beginning  class  teach  only  one  method. 
In  advanced  classes  let  pupils  use  either.  Any  arithmetic 
will  give  an  explanation.  For  illustration,  from  732  take 
564.  (i)  Now  since  the  first  term  of  the  minuend  is 
less  than  the  same  term  in  the  subtrahend,  one  of  the 
terms  of  the  subtrahend  may  be  reduced  to  ones  and 
this  added  to  the  first  term.  Ten  ones  plus  2  equals 
12  ones.  12  minus  4  equals  8.  Now  apply  the  same 
process  in  the  other  columns. 

Multiplication. —  Show  that  multiplication  is  a  short 
method  of  finding  the  sum  of  two  or  more  equal  num- 
bers. 

Explain  the  sign  of  multiplication  and  the  two  ways 
of  reading  it.  When  the  multiplier  conies  first,  it  is 
read  "  times ; "  when  the  multiplier  comes  last,  it  is 


1G6  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

read  "  multiplied  by."  See  that  pupils  understand  the 
terms  multiplicand,  multiplier,  and  product.,  and  show 
them  that  the  multiplicand  may  be  an  abstract  or  a 
concrete  number,  that  the  multiplier  is  always  an  ab- 
stract number,  and  the  product  always  like  the  multi- 
plicand. See  that  pupils  understand  how  the  multi- 
plication table  may  be  derived,  and  that  they  have  it 
thoroughly  committed.  Seeing  how  the  rule  is  derived 
is  good,  but  to  attempt  to  teach  multiplication  without 
having  pupils  commit  it  to  memory  is  a  foolish  waste  of 
time. 

Teach  pupils  to  understand  why  we  write  the  partial 
products  as  we  do.  Thus  if  we  are  multiplying  524  by 
223  — 

(i)  We  are  to  unite  two  hundred  twenty-three  524*5 
First  we  unite  three  524*5,  then  twenty  524*5,  then  two 
hundred  524*5,  and  then  write  the  several  products. 

(2)  3X524—1572  ones. 

(3)  20X524=2X10X524  ones. 

(4)  200X524=2X10X10X524  ones. 

These  partial  products  then  united  will  give  the  com- 
plete product.  , 

Teach  the  following  tests  for  accuracy :  — 

1.  Use  the  multiplicand  for  multiplier. 

2.  Divide  the  product  by  either  the  multiplicand  or 
the  multiplier,  the  quotient  must  be  the  other. 

Division. —  Teach  the  division  signs  and  their  use. 
If  multiplication  has  been  properly  taught,  division  will 
give  little  trouble.  Teach  short  division  thoroughly 
before  long  division.  If  long  division  is  taught  first, 
children  are  apt  to  neglect  short  division,  and  lose  much 


ARITHMETIC  167 

valuable  time  in  solving  problems  by  long  division  which 
should  be  solved  by  short.  When  long  division  is  taken 
up,  use  problems  which  could  be  readily  solved  by  short 
division  until  pupils  have  mastered  the  mechanical  ar- 
rangement. Do  not  lose  patience.  Long  division  was 
the  hardest  subject  in  arithmetic  for  me,  and  it  was  due 
to  the  neglect  of  the  teacher  to  show  me  how  to  arrange 
the  mere  mechanical  part  of  the  work.  Give  drill  work 
until  pupils  are  quick  and  accurate. 

Law  of  the  Signs. —  The  class  having  now  completed 
the  four  fundamental  processes,  teach  the  law  of  the 
signs.  Authors  are  not  quite  a  unit  on  these,  but  the 
following  seem  to  be  the  best,  and  will  perhaps  soon 
be  accepted  by  all : — 

1.  The  signs  of  addition  and  subtraction  take  prece- 
dence over  the  signs  of  multiplication  and  division. 

2.  The    operations    of    multiplication    and    division 
should  be  performed  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence. 

3.  If  there  is  a  variation  from  this,  it  should  be  indi- 
cated by  one  of  the  signs  of  aggregation.     For  illustra- 
tion :  — 

5+3X6-^2+8—2X2=18 
5+3X6-K2+8)— 2X2=2.8 

Compound  Numbers. —  Teach  pupils  the  essential  dif- 
ference between  simple  and  compound  numbers.  In  com- 
pound numbers  the  scale  varies.  In  simple  numbers  the 
scale  is  uniform.  The  only  difference  between  addition 
of  simple  numbers  and  addition  of  compound  numbers 
is  that  in  simple  numbers  ten  units  of  each  lower  order 
make  one  of  the  next  higher,  while  in  addition  of  com- 
pound numbers  the  scale  varies  with  the  table  and  with 


168  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

the  denomination.  Sometimes  three  units  of  a  lower 
order  make  one  of  the  next  higher,  sometimes  forty  and 
sometimes  seventeen  hundred  twenty-eight. 

See  that  in  the  beginning  pupils  understand  thor- 
oughly the  processes  of  reduction  descending  and  reduc- 
tion ascending.  When  this  is  well  taught  with  the  first 
few  tables,  there  is  little  else  to  learn  but  the  new  tables. 

Group  the  tables,  preparing  an  outline  to  fit  your 
text-book,  and  see  that  pupils  get  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
subject.  Time  is  wasted  by  a  heterogeneous  mixing  of 
tables  until  pupils  are  confused.  Some  time  spent  in  or- 
ganizing and  getting  well  into  the  pupils'  minds  the  use 
of  the  different  tables,  is  a  great  saving.  When  pupils 
know  the  tables  and  understand  clearly  the  difference  be- 
tween the  fundamental  operations  with  simple  numbers 
and  compound,  then  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
and  division  of  compound  numbers  will  give  them  no 
trouble. 

Longitude  and  Time. —  This  is  one  of  the  little  bug- 
bears of  arithmetic.  In  a  teachers'  institute  requests  for 
explanations  of  difficult  subjects  are  seldom  asked  for 
without  this  being  in  the  list.  It  is  sure  to  be  requested 
some  time  during  the  week,  if  teachers  are  asked  to 
suggest  subjects  for  discussion.  There  is  no  reason 
why  teachers  should  find  longitude  and  time  hard  to 
teach.  Let  these  points  be  made  clear,  and  let  the  teacher 
illustrate  with  a  globe. 

1.  360°  make  a  circle. 

2.  The  earth  turns  on  its  axis  once  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  turns  from  west  toward  the  east. 

3.  Thus  in  one  hour  it  will  turn    -fa     of  360°,  or 


ARITHMETIC  169 

15°.     From  this  we  get  the  relation  between  time  and 
longitude  as  follows  :  — 


1  sec.  =15" 
l°=TVhr. 
1'—^  min. 
l"=iVsec. 

4.  The  earth  turns  from  west  toward  the  east,  and  as 
the  time  at  any  place  is  based  upon  the  relative  position 
of  the  sun  to  the  meridian  of  that  place,  all  points  east 
of  us  until  we  pass  half  round  the  earth  will  have  later 
time,  and  all  points  west  will  have  earlier.     Hence  if  we 
have  given  the  time  at  one  point  and  required  the  time 
at  a  point  east  of  it,  we  add  the  difference  in  time.     If 
west,  we  subtract  the  difference  in  time. 

5.  The  difficulty  comes  from  thoughtlessness  of  pupils. 
They   fail  to  station   themselves   in  imagination  at  the 
point  having  the  given  time,  and  then  ask  in  which  direc- 
tion is  the  time  required.     Thus  when  it  is  school  time, 
or  9  o'clock  A.  M.,  in  Chicago,  what  is  the  time  in  Boston? 
Let  them  stand  in  imagination   in   Chicago.     Then  as 
Boston  lies  east  of  them,  they  will  add  the  difference 
in  time  to  9  o'clock  to  get  the  time  in  Boston. 

6.  Another  difficulty  comes  from  finding  the  differ- 
ence in  longitude,  when,  for  example,  one  is  20°  E.  and 
the  other  40°  W.,  or  when  one  is  170°  E.  and  the  other 
1  60°  W.,  and  so  on.      Five  minutes'  explanation  with  a 
globe  or  ball  should  make  this  clear. 

7.  The  International  Date  Line  causes  some  confu- 
sion, especially  when  the  day  of  the  week  and  the  month 
are  required.     This,  too,  can  be  made  clear  by  the  use 
of  the  globe. 


170  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

Decimals. —  Pupils  should  have  a  clear  and  accurate 
understanding  of  decimals  because  of  their  importance 
in  operations  with  percentage.  After  pupils  understand 
the  difference  between  common  fractions  and  decimals, 
it  requires  only  a  few  new  facts  and  some  thoughtful 
drill  to  make  them  proficient  in  decimals.  These  simple 
but  specific  directions,  well  mastered,  will  help :  — 

1.  Pupils  should  have  at  their  tongue's  end  the  num- 
ber of  decimal  places  up  to  millionths.     That  is,  they 
must  know  that  tenths  has  one  figure,  hundredths  two, 
thousandths  three,  ten-thousandths   four,  hundred-thou- 
sandths five,  millionths  six.    No  sooner  is  ten  thousandths 
mentioned   than   the   child   should  know  that  there   are 
four  figures   in   it.     The   mind   should   respond  to   this 
as  quickly  and  as  accurately  as  the  hand  does  to  making 
the  figure  as  the  number  is  called. 

2.  They  should  use  the  word  and  only  between  whole 
numbers  and  the  decimal.     Thus  325.025  is  read  three 
hundred  twenty-five  and   twenty-five  thousandths. 

3.  The  last  word  in  the  statement  names  the  decimal. 
This  is  very  important.    Take  these  two  statements :  — 

(1)  Write   two  hundred  thousandths. 

(2)  Write  two  hundred-thousandths. 

The  first  is  written  .200,  for  the  name  of  the  decimal 
is  thousandths,  and  there  are  two  hundred  of  them. 
The  second  is  written  .'00002,  for  the  name  of  the  decimal 
is  hundred-thousandths,  and  there  are  two  of  them.  The 
only  difference  in  the  statements  is  the  compound  word 
indicated  by  the  hyphen,  making  the  first  thousandths 
and  the  second  hundred-thousandths.  With  these  three 
things  thoroughly  understood,  the  writing  of  decimals 
becomes  easy. 


ARITHMETIC  171 

The  operations  with  decimals  are  so  similar  to  those 
of  simple  numbers  that  careful  planning  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  will  make  them  easily  taught. 

Percentage.  —  Make  clear  the  terms  base,  rate,  and 
percentage.  Explain  clearly  the  first  formula,  BXR=P. 

From  this  fundamental  formula  develop  all  the  others. 
If  pupils  have  been  properly  taught,  they  need  only  to 
remember  the  fundamental  formulas  in  percentage,  and 
from  these  they  may  derive  the  others. 

Make  an  outline  of  the  applications  of  percentage 
to  suit  the  text-book  you  are  using.  This  will  give  your 
pupils  a  view  of  the  subject  as  a  whole.  Teach  them 
to  distinguish  carefully  what  is  given  and  what  is  re- 
quired in  each  case.  Then  teach  them  to  apply  the 
proper  formula  for  finding  the  missing  term.  It  is  well 
to  have  pupils  state  clearly  and  definitely  what  is  given 
and  what  is  required.  For  example,  in  the  problem  :  — 

"  In  a  flock  of  250  sheep  25  of  them  died.  What  per 
cent,  of  them  died  ?  " 

Have  pupils  make  out  a  statement  as  follows  :  — 


R=? 

P=25. 
Formula:     P--B=:R. 

After  they  see  clearly  what  is  given  and  what  is 
required,  let  them  perform  the  operation.  Remember 
that  until  your  class  can  give  a  clear,  definite  statement 
of  what  is  given  and  what  is  required,  all  work  is  hap- 
hazard. Too  much  time  is  wasted  in  figuring  without 
knowing  just  what  is  wanted.  It  is  blind  effort  in  the 
hope  of  securing  the  answer.  Good  teaching  makes  sure 
that  the  pupil  knows  just  what  he  is  seeking  in  the  prob- 
lem. 


172  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

After  percentage  with  its  many  applications  is  taught, 
there  remain  but  few  other  subjects  properly  belonging 
to  arithmetic.  Involution  and  evolution  should  be  thor- 
oughly taught.  In  beginning  evolution  do  not  waste 
valuable  time  in  teaching  the  reason  for  the  rule.  Pupils 
must  be  able  to  find  the  square  and  the  cube  root  before, 
much  advancement  can  be  made  in  algebra  or  higher 
arithmetic.  Teach  the  pupils  thoroughly  the  mechanical 
process,  and  make  them  quick  and  accurate  in  finding 
the  square  or  cube  root  of  numbers,  telling  them  that 
the  explanation  of  these  rules  belongs  to  geometry  and 
algebra.  If  you  have  arithmetical  geniuses  in  the  class 
who  want  to  know  the  reason  for  the  rules,  explain 
them,  but  with  many  of  the  class  a  month's  time  would 
not  make  the  reason  any  clearer,  because  it  is  beyond 
their  mathematical  comprehension,  while  in  two  weeks' 
time  they  should  be  fairly  accurate  in  the  process. 

Let  me  insist  that  teachers  have  pupils  learn  the 
squares  of  all  numbers  up  to  twenty-five  and  the  cubes  up 
to  ten.  They  should  know  these  as  thoroughly  as  they 
know  the  multiplication  table,  being  able  to  name  the 
squares  or  cubes  as  rapidly  as  the  teacher  calls  the  num- 
bers, or  to  name  the  roots  as  the  squares  and  cubes  are 
given.  To  teach  these  will  require  but  little  time,  but 
it  will  be  a  time  saver  ever  afterward  to  the  pupil.  In 
solving  a  problem  in  square  root,  if  the  pupil  cannot  tell 
at  a  glance  the  largest  square  in  the  left-hand  period, 
he  is  at  a  great  disadvantage.  In  fact,  he  can  secure  the 
first  figure  of  the  root  only  by  trial  or  guess  work.  In 
cube  root  it  is  just  as  necessary  to  see  at  a  glance  the 
largest  cube  in  the  left-hand  period.  To  fail  or  to  neglect 
to  see  that  the  pupils  know  thoroughly  these  squares  and 
cubes  is  unpardonable  in  the  teacher  of  these  subjects. 


ARITHMETIC  173 

When  the  pupils  see  the  number  589,  they  should  know 
that  the  largest  square  in  that  number  is  576,  and  that 
the  root  of  the  square  is  24.  When  they  see  the  number 
400,  they  should  know  instantly  that  the  greatest  cube 
contained  in  it  is  343,  and  that  the  root  of  this  cube  is  7. 
With  such  knowledge  they  have  the  first  figure  of  the 
root  instantly,  and  then  with  a  little  drill  on  the  me- 
chanical arrangement  the  other  figures  are  quickly  and 
accurately  found. 

Mensuration  and  its  various  applications  should  be 
thoroughly  taught.  No  part  of  arithmetic  is  more  prac- 
tical in  after  life,  and  at  the  same  time  nothing  gives 
more  culture.  So  many  pupils  leave  school  before  study- 
ing geometry,  and  mensuration  is  so  important  that  its 
use  in  arithmetic  is  justifiable. 

Pupils  properly  prepared  can  in  a  few  weeks  get  a 
practical  knowledge  of  mensuration.  Almost  every  rule 
can  be  clearly  explained  and  illustrated  by  the  thorough 
teacher  and  brought  into  the  comprehension  of  the  class. 

A  clear,  definite  outline  made  to  embrace  your  au- 
thor's treatment  of  the  subject  will  be  very  helpful.  This 
may  be  complete  enough  to  include  the  different  rules 
and  principles  of  each  subject.  The  pupils  should  have 
this  outline  thoroughly  in  mind,  and  be  able  to  reproduce 
it  from  memory. 

No  subject  in  arithmetic  gives  better  results  than 
mensuration  when  properly  taught.  If  the  teacher  is 
alive  to  its  interesting  features,  full  of  his  subject,  and 
gives  sufficient  well-chosen  illustrations  and  supplemen- 
tary problems,  the  pupils  will  be  enthusiastic  over  the 
work.  If  they  are  not  interested,  it  is  almost  invariably 
the  fault  of  the  teacher. 


XXII.    GEOGRAPHY 

THE  word  geography  is  of  Greek  origin,  and  means 
literally  a  description  of  the  earth.  It  is  claimed  with 
much  truth  that  geography  is  not  so  much  a  science 
within  itself  as  a  collection  of  facts  from  various  sciences. 
Chemistry,  physics,  geology,  botany,  and  zoology  each 
and  all  contribute  to  what  is  commonly  called  geography. 
Geography  is  frequently  divided  into  mathematical,  po- 
litical, and  physical.  But  this  division  will  not  be  care- 
fully followed  here. 

Of  all  the  studies  of  the  school  course  geography 
and  history  are  the  most  liberalizing  and  humanizing. 
The  man  ignorant  of  geography  must  be  of  very  minor 
importance  in  the  world ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
man  familiar  with  geography  must,  in  a  sense,  be  edu- 
cated. The  great  inventions  of  the  last  century  have,  in 
a  large  sense,  annihilated  space.  New  York  and  San 
Francisco  are  nearer  together  to-day  than  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  were  in  Washington's  time.  The  study 
of  geography,  through  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination 
and  the  other  faculties,  annihilates  space  to  the  pupil.  It 
brings  the  peoples  of  the  world,  with  their  manners  and 
customs,  their  religion  and  their  life,  to  the  pupil,  and  is 
a  wonderful  liberalizing  force.  Narrow-mindedness  is 
largely  another  name  for  ignorance.  Men  who  have  seen 
much  of  the  world,  and  especially  if  they  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  life  of  the  people,  grow  tolerant  in  their 
opinions,  and  have  more  sympathy  and  interest  in  the 
community  as  a  whole.  The  right  study  of  geography 
174 


GEOGRAPHY  175 

will  be  to  the  boy  or  girl  what  traveling  is  to  the  man 
or  woman. 

What  should  the  intelligent  man  know  of  geography  ? 
This  should  determine  the  ultimate  object  of  teaching  it. 
In  geography,  as  in  other  studies,  if  there  is  a  definite 
object  in  view,  methods  and  devices  will  be  readily  found. 
The  intelligent  man  wants  to  know  something  of  the 
manners  and  customs,  the  religion  and  races,  the  stand- 
ing and  civilization  of  the  people  of  the  world.  He  wants 
also  to  understand  the  phenomena  of  nature  and  the 
physical  features  and  possibilities  of  the  continents.  This 
explains  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  nations  and  races, 
the  soil  and  the  climate,  and  the  natural  conditions 
of  the  continents.  Not  only  this,  he  sees  the  gateways  of 
the  world,  and  the  importance  of  location,  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  future.  He  sees  also  the  influence  of  indi- 
viduals, as  well  as  the  industry  and  thrift  of  the  people 
as  a  class,  and  knows  the  transforming  influence  of 
these  upon  the  locality  or  the  country.  This  being  among 
the  things  which  the  intelligent  man  should  know  about 
geography,  the  study  of  the  subject  should  aim  at  these 
results. 

It  must  never  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  child 
cannot  think  the  man's  thoughts.  He  is  gathering  and 
grouping  and  storing  facts  from  which  general  deductions 
and  intelligent  conclusions  will  afterward  be  formed. 
The  study  of  geography,  then,  like  any  other  subject, 
must  be  adapted  to  the  mental  capacity  of  the  pupil. 

There  are  two  general  methods  in  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy, the  analytic  and  the  synthetic.  The  combining  of 
these  methods  would  perhaps  be  the  most  intelligent 
teaching.  Those  advocates  who  use  the  analytic  method 
claim  for  it  the  following  advantages :  — 


176  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

1.  It  enables  the  teacher  to  use  a  globe   from  the 
very  first. 

2.  It  gives  a  correct  view  of  the  size,  relation,  and 
direction  of  countries. 

3.  It   enables   the   teacher   to   explain   the   causes   of 
day  and  night,  and  many  other  natural  phenomena,  early 
in  the  school  course. 

4.  It  follows  the  law  so  generally  accepted  as  final 
that  we  should  go  from  the  whole  to  its  parts. 

Perhaps  neither  of  these  four  contains  the  whole 
truth. 

The  advocates  of  the  synthetic  method  claim  for  its 
advantages :  — 

1.  That  the  teacher  can  illustrate  from  familiar  ob- 
jects, and  thus  create  more  interest. 

2.  That  he  follows  the  pedagogical  law  of  proceeding 
from  the  known  to  the  related  unknown. 

3.  That  it  teaches  pupils  the  most  important  geog- 
raphy of  their  own  section  and  State  before  the  study 
of  remote  places  and  people. 

4.  That  it  gives  the  child  a  definite  meaning  of  geo- 
graphical terms  from  the  very  first. 

In  the  analytic  method  the  teacher  begins  with  the 
world  as  a  whole,  its  size,  shape,  motion,  etc.  Then  comes 
the  division  into  hemispheres,  zones,  and  later  into  conti- 
nents, countries,  states,  counties,  communities,  and  lo- 
calities. In  the  synthetic  method  the  child  begins  with 
the  home  and  farm  and  school-yard,  or  the  city,  and 
goes  to  the  township  or  district  and  community,  the 
State,  the  country,  the  continent,  the  earth  as  a 
whole.  The  better  method  is  to  begin  with  the  syn- 


GEOGRAPHY  111 

thetic,  teaching  pupils  something  of  the  school-house  and 
grounds,  and  later  the  township,  county,  and  State.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  average  child, 
after  you  pass  his  immediate  neighborhood,  will  grasp 
the  thought  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  almost  as  readily  as 
of  the  country  or  continent.  To  a  child  "  away  up  in 
the  country  "  is  just  as  incomprehensible  as  away  out  in 
California  or  away  over  in  Europe. 

In  beginning  with  the  school-house  and  grounds, 
pupils  may  be  led  to  determine  directions  and  distance, 
to  draw  maps  of  these  familiar  objects,  and  to  locate 
direction  and  distance  on  maps.  After  the  child  is  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  these  things  pertaining  to  his  im- 
mediate surroundings,  it  is  an  easy  transition  to  other 
surroundings.  They  come  in  contact  with  geography  first 
from  nature  rather  than  from  books.  Agassiz,  the  great 
teacher  of  natural  science  and  all  that  pertains  to  nature, 
says  in  regard  to  teaching  geography,  "  Let  us  not  at 
first  resort  to  books,  but  let  us  take  the  class  into  the 
fields,  and  point  out  the  hills  and  valleys,  rivers  and 
creeks,  and  let  the  pupils  learn  out  of  doors  the  points 
of  the  compass.  Then  having  shown  them  these  things, 
let  them  compare  the  representations  with  the  realities, 
and  the  maps  will  have  a  meaning  to  them.  When  I 
was  in  the  college  of  Neuchatel  I  desired  to  introduce 
such  a  method  of  teaching  geography.  I  was  told  it 
could  not  be  done,  and  my  request  to  be  allowed  to  in- 
struct the  youngest  children  in  the  institution  was  re- 
fused. I  resorted  to  another  means,  and  took  my  own 
children,  my  oldest,  a  boy  of  six  years,  and  my  girls, 
four  and  a  half  and  two  and  a  half  years  old,  and  invited 
the  children  of  my  neighbors.  Some  came  upon  the 
arms  of  their  mothers,  others  could  walk  without  assist- 

12 


178  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

ance.  These  children  I  took  upon  the  hill  above  the  city, 
and  there  showed  the  magnificent  peaks  of  the  Alps  and 
told  them  the  names  of  these  mountains  and  the  beau- 
tiful lakes  opposite.  I  then  showed  them  the  same  things 
on  a  raised  map,  and  they  immediately  recognized  the  lo- 
cality, and  were  soon  able  to  do  the  same  thing  on  an 
ordinary  map.  From  that  day  geography  was  no  longer 
a  dry  study,  but  a  desirable  part  of  their  education." 
•  This  paragraph  from  Agassiz  is  full  of  suggestion  to 
the  thoughtful  teacher. 

Maps  should  mean  more  to  children  than  mere  bits 
of  colored  paper.  The  black  line  representing  the  river 
must  not  be  a  black  line  simply,  but  the  child  in  his 
imagination  must  see  the  river  "  seize  the  hills  in  its 
hands,  and  drag  them  down  to  the  ocean."  The  black 
dots  representing  cities  must  in  the  child's  mind  be  built 
into  thriving  cities  with  the  push  and  noise  of  busy  life. 
Mountains  should  be  something  more  than  wave-like 
lines  across  the  page.  Rocky  crags,  deep  ravines,  snow- 
capped peaks  with  their  wonderful,  awe-inspiring  scenes, 
must  be  so  pictured  that  the  child  sees  them  in  his 
imagination. 

Begin  geography  with  the  child's  immediate  surround- 
ings, and  constantly  appeal  to  his  imaginative  power. 
Do  not  forget  also  that  geography  is  closely  linked  with 
reading,  history,  literature,  and  language.  Encourage 
the  reading  of  books  of  travel,  stories  of  foreign  people, 
descriptions  of  wonderful  natural  objects,  and  historical 
events.  Use  to  advantage  numerous  pictures,  drawings, 
modelings,  and  moldings. 

Take  your  class  on  imaginative  journeys,  visit  his- 
toric spots,  go  on  summer  outings  and  exploring  expedi- 
tions, have  the  class  describe  the  changing  scenes  and 


GEOGRAPHY  170 

wonderful  things  which  may  be  seen  and  heard  on  such 
explorations.  Much  interest  will  be  added  to  the  study, 
and  geography  become  a  living  subject. 

Do  not  forget  the  study  of  physical  geography,  even 
in  the  lower  grades.  It  may  not  be  called  physical  ge- 
ography always.  The  cause  of  rain  fall,  deserts,  winds, 
tides,  day  and  night,  changes  of  the  moon  and  the  sea- 
sons, may  be  studied,  and  although  they  cannot  be  clearly 
explained  to  the  mind  of  the  child,  something  of  their 
causes  may  be  given,  and  this  will  incite  interest  and  fur- 
ther study  later.  Also  the  modifications  of  climate.  Early 
in  the  study  of  geography  direct  the  pupil's  attention 
to  the  importance  of  commerce  and  commercial  centers  in 
the  building  and  development  of  cities.  Note  also  how 
the  life  of  the  people  may  be  modified  by  the  climate  and 
soil.  Minnesota  with  her  waving  fields  of  wheat,  Mis- 
sissippi with  her  fields  of  cotton,  neither  will  ever  com- 
pete with  the  other  in  these  two  productions.  But  the 
climate  makes  a  great  difference  in  the  customs  and  hab- 
its, the  clothing  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  conduct,  of 
the  people.  Soil  and  climate  lie  at  the  very  basis  of  cor- 
rect interpretation  of  institutions. 

After  pupils  grow  familiar  with  their  text-book  on 
geography,  nothing  is  better  than  a  topical  outline  for 
the  study  of  a  state  or  a  country.  It  helps  the  pupils  to 
classify  what  should  be  known.  The  teacher  may  ar- 
range the  outline  to  suit  his  own  judgment.  The  pupils 
are  then  to  gather  the  information  from  any  source  to 
which  they  have  access.  The  outline  given  below  may 
be  modified  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  class,  but  each  mem- 
ber should  have  it  neatly  copied  and  before  him  in  the 
preparation  of  the  lesson  as  well  as  at  the  recitation : — 


180  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

OUTLINE)  FOR  A  COUNTRY  OR  CONTINENT. 

I.  Location. 

1.  Latitude. 

2.  Longitude. 

3.  With  reference  to  other  countries  or  bodies  of 

land  and  water. 

II.  Size. 

1.  Area. 

2.  Compared  with  your  own  State. 

3.  Length  and  breadth. 

III.  Outline. 

1.  Indentation. 

(1)  Seas. 

(2)  Gulfs. 

(3)  Bays. 

(4)  Estuaries. 

(5)  Deltas. 

2.  Projections. 

(1)  Capes. 

(2)  Peninsulas. 

3.  Connections. 

(1)  Isthmuses. 

(2)  Straits. 

4.  Islands. 

1 i )  Continental. 

(2)  Groups. 

IV.  Natural   Features, 
i.  Land. 

(1)  Mountains. 

a.  Ranges. 

b.  Peaks. 

(2)  Plateaus. 


GEOGRAPHY  181 


(3)  Plains  and  Valleys. 

(4)  Watersheds. 

2.  Water. 

(1)  Rivers. 

(2)  Lakes. 

3.  Climate. 

1 i )  Temperature. 

(2)  Rainfall. 

(3)  Healthf illness. 

4.  Soil. 

V.  Productions. 

1.  Natural. 

(1)  Animals. 

(2)  Agricultural   Products. 

(3)  Minerals. 

2.  Artificial. 

( i )   Manufactures. 

VI.  The  People. 

1.  Races. 

2.  Appearance. 

3.  Manners  and  Customs. 

4.  Occupations. 

5.  Number. 

VII.  Enterprise. 

1.  Cities  and  Towns. 

2.  Commerce. 

3.  Public  Works. 

4.  Manufacturing. 

5.  Railroads. 

6.  General  Improvements. 

VIII.  Institutions. 

i.  Government. 


182  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

(1)  Republican. 

(2)  Monarchial. 

2.  Education. 

3.  Religion. 

IX.  Miscellaneous. 

MAP  DRAWING. 

Map  drawing  serves  a  useful  purpose  in  the  study 
of  geography.  Like  drawing  as  a  separate  study,  the 
greatest  value  of  map  drawing  is  that  it  cultivates  obser- 
vation. It  should  begin  in  the  early  school  years  with 
the  map  of  the  school-room.  In  this  simple  map,  be 
true  to  the  conventional  directions,  making  the  top  of 
the  map  correspond  with  the  north,  the  right  hand  to 
the  east,  etc.  This  is  quite  essential.  Locate  the -win- 
dows and  doors,  the  teacher's  desk,  the  stove,  etc.,  and 
teach  from  the  first  something  of  relative  size  and  po- 
sition. Do  not  forget  also  to  have  the  same  map  drawn 
large  and  small,  thus  teaching  the  scale  of  the  map. 

After  pupils  are  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  map 
of  the  room,  extend  it  to  the  other  rooms  of  the  building 
if  there  are  more  than  one.  Then  to  the  school  grounds, 
taking  care  always  that  directions  are  carefully  observed. 
Extend  it  then  to  the  school  district,  the  township,  and 
later  to  the  county  and  State.  Along  with  this  local 
map  drawing  may  be  taught  much  civil  government  and 
history  in  the  oral  geography  work.  In  studying  the 
county  seat,  have  the  county  officials  named,  and  the 
main  duties  of  the  offices  pointed  out. 

After  pupils  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  map  draw- 
ing as  applied  to  the  local  surroundings,  they  are  ready 
to  draw  maps  of  States  and  countries.  The  greatest 
purpose  of  map  drawing  is  not  simply  copying  the  map 


GEOGRAPHY  183 

from  the  book,  but  the  holding  of  the  shape  of  the 
State  or  country  studied,  in  mind,  so  that  the  pupil  may 
readily  draw  a  map  which  would  be  recognized.  This 
should  be  free-hand  drawing.  The  accurate  measure- 
ment of  intersecting  lines  may  be  taught  as  an  exer- 
cise, but  maps  so  constructed  do  not  have  the  educa- 
tive value  that  free-hand  drawing  gives.  The  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  look  at  the  map,  and  then  to  draw 
it  from  memory.  In  the  early  stage  of  map  drawing, 
map  tracing  by  a  thin  paper  may  be  sometimes  used  to 
advantage,  but  should  be  discarded  for  the  free-hand 
drawing  as  soon  as  possible. 

Map  drawing  gives  a  clear  interpretation,  and  the 
ability  to  read  a  map  correctly  is  very  essential  to  cor- 
rect geographical  ideas. 

The  teacher  of  geography  must  never  forget  the 
close  connection  between  geography  and  the  other  studies, 
such  as  reading,  history,  language,  etc.  All  the  his- 
torical events  should  be  located  geographically.  In 
studying  the  Mexican  War,  review  the  geography  of 
Mexico,  and  see  that  pupils  are  able  to  map  the  cam- 
paigns of  Scott  and  Taylor  accurately.  In  reading 
of  natural  wonders,  teach  the  class  to  associate  them 
carefully  with  the  place.  It  is  not  good  teaching  when 
the  class  has  an  idea  that  this  or  that  is  away  off  some- 
where. They  should  know  in  what  continent  and  country 
it  is  located. 

DEVICES    IN    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

In  geography,  as  in  every  other  study,  pupils  enjoy 
variety.  The  teacher  must  have  attention,  he  must  have 
interest,  or  his  teaching  is  a  failure.  The  following 
suggestions  may  be  helpful : — 


184  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

1.  Make  good  use  of  pictures,  drawings,  moldings, 
etc. 

2.  Take  your  class  on  zig-zag  journeys,  having  them 
describe  what  may  be  seen  or  found  in  the  places  vis- 
ited. 

3.  Have    one   pupil   describe   a    river   while   another 
guesses  the  name. 

4.  Have  one  pupil  name  a  river,  and  then  the  teacher 
or  some  pupil  designate  who  shall  describe  it. 

5.  Have  each  pupil  in  the  class  select  ten  brief,  simple 
questions  on  the  lesson.      Then  each  pupil  in  turn  reads 
the  question  and  designates  who  shall  answer  it.     Other 
pupils  having  the  same  question  draw  a  line  across  it. 
This  will  give  a  variety  of  questions,  many  of  which  are 
excellent,  and  if  properly  used,  this  exercise  is  intensely 
interesting. 

6.  Have  the  pupils  write  on  the  board  as  rapidly  as 
they  can  the  names  of  the  rivers  or  the  cities  of  the 
country  or  continent.      Then,   facing  the  teacher,   each 
pupil  in  turn   is  asked  to  read  one  of  the  names  and 
describe  it,  or  tell  where  located.     Any  pupil  having  this 
name    draws    a    single    mark    through    it.       Pupils    will 
take  a  delight  in  seeing  who  can  write  and  describe  the 
most. 

7.  Have  pupils  draw  maps  on  the  board  and  leave  it 
to  the  vote  of  the  class  which  is  the  best  map.      If  the 
teacher  has  the  right  influence  and  control  over  the  pu- 
pils,  the  voting  will  be   done  honestly. 

8.  Encourage  pupils  to  collect  specimens  of  wood, 
flowers,  fossils,  minerals,  insects,  agricultural  and  man- 
ufactured  articles    from   each   country   they   study.       A 
school  cabinet,   where  such  specimens  can  be  properly 


GEOGRAPHY  185 

labeled  and  kept,  will  be  of  great  interest  and  profit  to 
the  class. 

9.  Do  not  forget  physical  and  mathematical  geogra- 
phy. Have  pupils  explain  and  illustrate  by  drawing 
many  of  the  natural  phenomena,  such  as  change  of  sea- 
son, the  tides,  rainfall,  the  causes  and  direction  of  winds, 
ocean  currents,  land  formations,  the  carrying  power  of 
streams,  the  origin  of  mountain  ranges,  and  numerous 
other  subjects  in  physical  geography. 

10.  Have  pupils  do  much  written  work,  such  as  writ- 
ing short  paragraphs  upon  topics  assigned,  questions  and 
outlines,  or  a  written  recitation  by  the  topical  method 
in  which  each  pupil  is  given  a  topic  and  sent  to  the 
board  to  write,  say  for  five  to  fifteen  minutes.  Assign 
such  topics  also  for  preparation,  and  have  them  read 
and  criticized  in  class. 

11.  Dictate  to  the  pupils  the  names  of  the  rivers  of 
the  continent  or  country,  and  have  them  indicate  by  an 
arrow  the  direction  which  they  flow. 

12.  Encourage  recitation  by  topics.      Call  the  topic 
and  then  call  for  volunteers.     See  that  the  topic  is  clearly 
stated,  and  if  any  point  is  omitted,  let  others  volunteer 
to  give  the  additional   information. 

13.  Teach  pupils  how  to  study  the  lesson.     On  many 
subjects  half  of  the  time  is  lost  because  the  pupils  do 
not  know  how  to  study.      Have  them  read  the  lesson 
through  thoughtfully  and  afterward  review  it  by  topic. 

14.  Have  each  pupil  name  the  State  or  country,  and 
some  pupil  describe  its  climate,  products,  natural  objects, 
and  resources. 

15.  Let  a  pupil  name  the  State  while  the  next  below 
names  the  capital  of  it,  and  so  on  around  the  class.     Vary 


186  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

it  by  having  them  name  the  capital  while  the  next  names 
the  State  or  country. 

1 6.  Have  pupils  write  a  complete  list  of  questions 
on  a  geography  lesson,  questions  which  the  pupil  thinks 
will  bring  out  the  important  points  of  the  lesson.  This 
is  an  excellent  drill  in  discriminating  the  important  from 
the  non-important.  If  they  ask  the  teacher  a  question 
which  he  cannot  answer,  let  him  frankly  and  honestly 
say  so,  and  let  him  try  to  find  it  out  as  soon  as  possible. 

17.  Require  much  supplementary  work.      The  pupil 
who  depends  entirely  upon  his  text-book  in  geography 
will  never  learn  a  great  deal  of  geography.      Send  him 
to  the  magazines,  newspapers,  school  journals,  encyclo- 
pedias, the  advanced  texts  on  geography,  geology,  and 
other   subjects   for  his   information. 

1 8.  In  studying  about  other  countries,  have  the  pu- 
pils note  the  characteristic  things  about  the  people,  their 
habits,  occupations,  dress,  morals,  and  civilization. 

19.  If  possible,  have  pupils  familiar  with  some  of  the 
noted    songs   and    poems    of   each   country.       Associate 
Burns's    poems    with    Scotland,    Shakespeare    with    En- 
gland, Dante  with  Italy,  etc.      The  localizing  of  history 
and   biography    is    a   great   awakener   of   thought,    and 
serves   to   fasten   the   event  indelibly   with  the   country. 


XXIII.    LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION 


language  lesson  should  precede  formal  grammar. 
It  deals  more  with  the  art  side  of  language.  It  is  of 
more  importance  to  the  great  mass  of  pupils.  It  may, 
if  properly  taught,  increase  the  fluency,  freedom,  and 
accuracy  of  a  child's  expression.  It  should  begin  with 
the  child's  introduction  to  school,  and  English  in  some 
of  its  phases  may  well  be  studied  in  every  grade,  even 
throughout  the  university  course. 

The  aim  of  language  work  is  correct  habits  in  the 
use  of  language.  The  only  way  this  can  be  accomplished 
is  by  persistent,  thoughtful  drill  until  the  use  becomes 
habitual.  The  study  of  rules  and  principles  will  not  ac- 
complish the  desired  result.  They  may  help  later.  They 
may  fortify  the  pupil  in  the  use  of  correct  forms,  and 
help  to  weed  out  improper  forms;  but  a  knowledge  of 
rules  does  not  guarantee  correct  English.  The  language 
in  its  proper  form  must  be  so  wrought  into  the  child's 
very  being  that  when  his  mind  is  occupied  with  the 
thought,  the  proper  expression  will  be  easy  and  natural. 

The  language  class  is  not  the  place  to  study  and  re- 
cite the  simple  rules  of  grammar.  The  rules  given  should 
be  few,  and  these  should  have  as  their  direct  object  the 
use  in  the  child's  oral  or  written  language.  It  is  the 
place  for  the  child  to  think,  to  talk,  and  to  write  ;  and 
while  this  is  being  done,  the  teacher  should  give  care- 
ful attention  to  the  form  of  expression.  Correct  forms 
should  be  emphasized  and  incorrect  ones  weeded  out. 
As  the  child  cannot  be  expected  to  take  a  lively  interest 

187 


188  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

in  mere  dry  language  forms,  they  must  be  given  inter- 
esting things  to  think  and  talk  and  write  about.  This 
will  give  occasion  to  use  these  forms  in  expressing 
thought.  The  child  cannot,  at  this  stage,  be  interested 
in  words  as  words.  The  explanations  of  forms  and  the 
etymology  of  words,  which  may  be  ever  so  helpful  to  us 
as  adults,  can  have  no  interest  for  the  child.  Hence  the 
language  unit  should  be  the  sentence.  Correct  and  in- 
correct forms  will  appear  in  these,  and  when  these  single 
words  are  then  isolated  for  correction,  the  pupils  may 
realize  the  aim  of  their  fragmentary  study. 

Scope  of  the  Work. —  Much  of  the  work  of  the  teacher 
of  language  must  be  directed  to  correcting  bad  habits 
of  speech  already  formed.  Were  children  all  from 
homes  of  refinement  and  culture  and  pure  language,  the 
teacher's  task  would  be  lighter.  The  use  of  language 
is  learned  by  imitation.  The  child  will  use  the  correct 
form  or  the  incorrect  with  equal  readiness.  Many  of 
us  have  struggled  long  and  hard  to  overcome  the  in- 
correct language  habits  formed  in  early  life,  and  have 
only  partially  succeeded.  When  we  see  children  so  fortu- 
nately situated  that  they  grow  up  without  these  habits 
so  hard  to  overcome,  it  would  seem  that  unless  their  ac- 
complishments were  great,  their  failure  were  greater. 

What  should  be  accomplished  in  the  first  and  second 
year's  work  in  language  in  the  common  school?  The 
following  is  surely  not  too  much : — 

1.  To  write,  punctuate,  and  capitalize  correctly  - 

1.  Simple  statements. 

2.  Simple  questions. 

2.  To   recognize   readily  — 

i.  Name  words. 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  183 

2.  Action  words. 

3.  Place  and  time  words. 

4.  Common   Adjectives. 

5.  Pronouns. 

3.  To  use  correctly  — 

1.  Is  and  are. 

2.  Was  and  were. 

3.  Has  and  have. 

4.  Do  and  done. 

5.  Saw  and  seen. 

6.  Sit  and  set. 

7.  Lie  and  lay. 

8.  A  and  an. 

9.  This  and  these. 

10.  That  and  those. 

11.  Who  and  whom. 

4.  To  capitalize  proper  nouns  and  all  abbreviations  prop- 

erly. 

5.  To  distinguish  and  use  correctly  the  plurals  of  nouns, 

and  to  recognize  and  use  properly  the  singular  and 
plural  verb  forms. 

6.  To  write  a  simple  letter,  description,  or  story,  correct 

in  mechanical  form  and  language.  To  accomplish 
this  will  require  work  and  drill  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  but  it  can  be  done. 

It  is  true  there  are  many  errors  in  speech  and  writ- 
ing, and  yet  almost  all  of  them  may  be  classed  under  one 
of  four  heads  : — 

1.  The  plural  form  of  nouns. 

2.  The  agreement  of  noun  and  verb. 

3.  The  case  forms  of  pronouns. 

4.  The  tense  forms  of  verbs. 


190  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

To  these  we  may  add  four  others  belonging  more  to 
the  mechanical  side: — 

1.  Misspelled  words. 

2.  Wrong  punctuation. 

3.  Wrong  capitalization. 

4.  Paragraphing. 

We  then  have  before  us  the  problem  of  language 
teaching.  There  are  a  number  of  good  language  books 
on  the  market  for  the  primary  grades. 

Let  teachers  remember,  however,  that  books,  ex- 
cellent as  they  are  in  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher,  may  be 
made  the  dryest  kind  of  lifeless  formalism  in  the  hands 
of  an  incompetent  teacher.  The  teacher's  soul  must  be 
in  the  work.  He  must  be  a  worthy  model  for  his  pu- 
pils, and  he  must  have  such  a  burning  desire  to  get 
results  that  he  will  work  persistently  to  improve  the 
language  of  the  pupils. 

COMPOSITION. 

To  many  pupils  and  most  teachers  composition  is  a 
bugbear.  To  mention  it  is  to  suggest  a  sigh,  and  a  wry 
face  is  not  a  rare  thing  to  be  seen  in  a  class  when  the 
subject  of  composition  is  announced.  The  first  duty  of 
the  teacher  is  to  overcome  this  prejudice  on  the  part  of 
pupils.  Until  this  is  done,  little  can  be  accomplished 
in  the  way  of  real  progress.  Much  can  be  done  to 
make  the  composition  lesson  a  real  pleasure  to  pupils, 
and  I  have  known  classes  to  petition  the  teacher  to  let 
them  write  compositions  rather  than  do  other  work  in 
English. 

Not  all  compositions  are  written.  Writing  is  only 
one  form  of  expression.  Every  one  finds  some  way  of 
expressing  himself.  If  it  is  not  in  words,  it  is  in  facial 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  191 

expression  and  actions.  As  long  as  we  are  unconscious 
of  this  expression  we  enjoy  it,  but  when  we  begin  to 
write,  our  thoughts  are  clogged,  our  words  will  not  come, 
and  our  sentences  are  clumsy  and  only  half  express  our 
meaning.  No  one  enjoys  what  he  knows  he  does 
poorly.  It  is  only  after  much  practice  that  we  write  as 
readily  as  we  talk.  When  pupils  learn  that  every  con- 
versation of  theirs  is  a  composition,  and  that  to  write 
the  same  words  on  paper  would  make  a  written  compo- 
sition, they  begin  to  lose  some  of  their  prejudice  against 
the  subject. 

Mr.  Palmer,  in  his  "Self-cultivation  in  English," 
very  aptly  says :  "  First,  then,  look  to  your  speech.  It 
is  commonly  supposed  that  when  a  man  seeks  literary 
power,  he  goes  to  his  room  and  plans  an  article  for  the 
press.  But  this  is  to  begin  literary  culture  at  the  wrong 
end.  We  speak  a  hundred  times  for  every  time  we 
write.  The  busiest  writer  produces  little  more  than  a 
volume  a  year  —  not  so  much  as  his  talk  would  amount 
to  in  a  week.  Consequently  through  speech  it  is  usually 
decided  whether  a  man  is  to  have  command  of  his  lan- 
guage or  not.  If  he  is  slovenly  in  ninety-nine  cases 
in  talking,  he  can  seldom  pull  himself  up  to  strength  and 
exactitude  in  the  hundredth  case  in  writing."  The  same 
is  true  of  children.  Clear  thinking  and  interest  underlie 
clear  writing. 

Composition,  or  the  constructive  phase  of  English, 
divides  readily  into  two  parts,  which  may  be  called  the 
mechanical  side  and  the  thought  side.  Let  us  take  these 
more  in  detail. 

The  Mechanical  Side. —  Graduates  from  our  common 
and  high  schools  are  wofully  deficient  in  this.  How7 
many  of  them  can  write  a  letter  respectably  accurate 


192  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

in  form,  correct  in  spelling,  punctuation,  and  paragraph- 
ing? When  we  read  the  circulars  from  business  col- 
leges guaranteeing  positions  to  all  sorts  of  persons  after 
two  to  four  months'  study,  we  wonder  if  ignorance  is 
bliss.  They  do  not,  however,  guarantee  their  graduates 
to  hold  the  positions  any  definite  length  of  time.  No 
young  person  can  hope  to  make  even  a  respectable  be- 
ginning in  a  clerical  career  until  he  has  thoroughly  mas- 
tered the  mechanical  part  of  English  composition. 

This  mechanical  —  while  I  designate  it  as  mechanical 
I  am  well  aware  there  is  a  thought  basis  for  it  —  includes 
(i)  spelling,  (2)  punctuation,  (3)  paragraphing,  (4) 
arrangement  of  written  work.  Let  us  discuss  each 
of  these  briefly  before  taking  up  the  thought  side,  and 
yet  keep  in  mind  that  too  much  attention  to  form  in 
the  early  stages  of  composition  is  deadening  to  the 
thought. 

i.  Spelling. — (i)  The  only  test  of  spelling  is  in  writ- 
ing. This  carries  with  it,  then,  the  suggestion  that  much 
of  our  drill  in  spelling  should  be  through  writing.  The 
muscles  must  be  trained  to  execute  accurately  the  thought 
of  the  mind.  This  can  be  done  only  by  careful  and  per- 
sistent practice  in  all  written  exercises. 

(2)  Train  pupils  to  notice  words  accurately.    There  are 
many  rules  for  spelling,  but,  like  the  systems  of  mem- 
ory  training,   most   of  them   are  as   hard   to   remember 
as  to  remember  the  words  themselves.      It  is  a  great  ac- 
complishment to  learn  a  new  word  accurately  from  the 
first,  so  that  you  have  a  clear  mental  picture  of  it. 

(3)  Use  the  dictionary  persistently.    No  other  way  will 
give  more  growth.      One  of  the  hardest  working  pupils 
who  ever  came  to  school  to  me,  and  one  whose  growth 
was  noticeable  from  day  to  day,  was  a  girl  who  per- 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  193 

sistently  used  an  academic  dictionary  and  used  it  in- 
telligently. She  studied  carefully  the  spelling  and 
derivation  of  every  new  word  she  met,  and  really  mas- 
tered it. 

( 4)  Re-read  all  written  work.    Mistakes  overlooked  at 
first  will  now  be  readily  recognized,  and  should  be  cor- 
rected.     A  habit  of  careful  revision  is  a  most  excellent 
thing. 

(5)  Never  allow  a  misspelled  zvord  to  go  uncorrected. 
This   should  apply  to  all  written   work   from  the  first. 
We  too  often  allow  any  sort  of  hap-hazard  spelling  in 
all  subjects  except  spelling  in  the  composition  class,  and 
then  wonder  why  pupils  do  not  spell  well  there.      Spell- 
ing, like  one's  religion,  is  for  constant  use  and  not  for 
Sunday  parade. 

2.  Punctuation. —  Punctuation  is  of  great  importance, 
and  yet  it  is  partly  a  matter  of  taste.  Teach  pupils  to 
observe  the  change  in  sense  by  change  in  punctuation. 
An  Irishman  entered  a  barber  shop,  got  a  shave  without 
offering  to  pay,  waited  some  minutes,  and  asked  for  his 
drink.  The  barber  was  astonished.  The  Irishman 
pointed  to  a  sign,  reading  it  thus :  "  What  do  you  think  ? 
I'll  shave  you  for  nothing,  then  give  you  a  drink  ?  " 

The  barber  corrected  him  at  once,  reading  it  as  fol- 
lows :  "  What !  Do  you  think  I'll  shave  you  for  noth- 
ing, then  give  you  a  drink  ?  " 

The  mayor  said,  "  The  teacher  is  a  donkey." 
"  The  mayor,"  said  the  teacher,  "  is  a  donkey." 
( i )   Pupils  should  be  taught  to  study  carefully  and 
observe  closely  the  punctuation  of  our  best  edited  books. 
The  purpose  of  punctuation  is  to  make  clear  the  thought 
of  the  writer.      Question  pupils  upon  why  certain  punc- 

13 


194  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

tuation  marks  are  used.  Write  paragraphs  omitting  all 
punctuation,  and  see  how  hard  they  are  to  read.  Differ- 
ent readings  of  ancient  authors  are  due  largely  to  differ- 
ent punctuation.  They  wrote  without  punctuation  marks 
of  any  kind,  and  modern  scholars  insert  the  punctuation 
to  fit  their  own  interpretation  of  the  thought.  Make  a 
list  of  the  most  prominent  uses  of  the  different  marks  of 
punctuation,  and  have  pupils  find  illustrations  of  them 
in  their  reading. 

(2)  Do  not  overpunctuate.  The  last  few  years  has 
seen  quite  a  reaction  in  regard  to  punctuation.  Punctu- 
ation which  does  not  modify  the  thought  or  aid  the 
eye  in  the  interpretation  of  the  page,  is  useless  and  the 
tendency  is  away  from  it. 

j.  Paragraphing. —  The  paragraph  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  date.  It  serves  an  important  purpose  in  ob- 
taining the  thought  from  the  page.  Paragraphing  is  a 
difficult  subject.  Teach  pupils  to  observe  carefully  the 
paragraphs  of  well-edited  books.  Each  teacher  should 
have  a  few  good  books  on  composition  and  especially 
on  the  paragraph. 

Teach  pupils : — 

(1)  To  make  each  distinct  topic  a  paragraph.      Out- 
lining a  subject  has  its  advantages.      If  the  pupils  have 
an  outline  of  the  subject  carefully  in  mind,  each  sub-topic 
should  be  treated   in  a  paragraph.      The   disadvantage 
of  outlining  the  composition  is  that  it  is  apt  to  become 
stiff  and  formal. 

(2)  To  see  that  the  paragraph  treats  of  but  one  sub- 
ject.    This  is  the  best  test  of  the  paragraph.      The  first 
and  last  of  the  paragraph  being  the  more  emphatic  posi- 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  195 

tions,  the  first  and  last  sentences  taken  together  should 
suggest  the  central  thought  of  the  paragraph. 

4.  Arrangement  of  Written  Work. —  Uniform  pa- 
per is  the  best.  The  size,  quality,  color,  etc.,  may  be 
left  to  the  taste  of  the  teacher.  Legible  writing,  neat- 
ness, and  taste  in  arrangement  of  form  are  worth  much. 
In  letters,  notes  of  invitation,  general  correspondence, 
and  the  like,  follow  the  forms  which  custom  prescribes. 
Show  individuality  without  violating  good  taste.  The 
following  rules  have  been  used  quite  successfully : — 

(1)  Write  on  one  side  of  the  paper  only. 

(2)  If  ink  is  used,  it  must  be  black. 

(3)  Size  of  paper,  8  1-2  by  n  inches,  with  marginal 
line  3-4  of  an  inch  from  the  left. 

(4)  Write  the  title  in  the  middle  of  the  page  I   1-2 
inches  from  the  top,  underscore  three  times  with  a  wavy 
line.      Begin  the  principal  words  of  the  title  with  cap- 
itals.     Write  the  name  on  the  second  line  beneath  the 
title  and  to  the  left,  beginning  at  the  marginal  line,  and 
the  date  on  tlie  same  line  at  the  right.     Underscore  name 
and  date  twice  with  wavy  lines. 

(5)  Begin  each  paragraph  at  least  one  inch  to  the 
right  of  the  marginal  line.      Begin  all  lines  except  the 
first  line  of  the  paragraph  at  the  marginal  line.    The  left- 
hand  side  should  be  straight  except  the  beginning  of  para- 
graphs, and  these  should  be  indented  an  inch  or  more. 

(6)  Do   not   divide   syllables   at   the   end   of   a   line. 
Space  so  the  right-hand  margin  will  be  reasonably  even. 

(7)  Be  careful  about  paragraphs.     It  is  a  common 
fault  that  pupils  want  to  begin  each  sentence  on  a  new 
line. 


196  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

(8)  Fold  your  paper  once  lengthwise,  writing  your 
name  and  the  date  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner. 

(9)  Neatness  is  worth  much  in  composition  work. 
As  an  aid  in  correcting  papers,  have  a  correction  plan 

in  which  certain  letters  or  signs  indicate  certain  mistakes. 
This  is  useful  as  a  time  saver.  Mistakes  may  then  be 
indicated  very  quickly  by  the  teacher,  and  the  pupil 
left  to  study  them  more  carefully  and  make  corrections. 

The  Thought  Side. —  The  thought  of  the  composition 
is  the  essential.  Pupils  cannot  write  until  they  have 
something  to  say.  When  they  feel  that  they  have  a 
story  worth  telling,  composition  becomes  a  delight.  The 
choice  of  a  subject  is  important.  It  is  one  of  the  difficult 
tasks  of  the  young  teacher.  Many  of  us  have  found 
that  the  task  is  half  done  when  we  have  determined  upon 
a  subject,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  pupil.  The  fol- 
lowing suggestions  may  be  helpful : — 

1 i )  Choose  subjects  the  pupils  know  something  about. 
There  is  a  tendency  in  young  persons  to  choose  abstract 
subjects,  such  as  Truth,  Honor,  Virtue,  The  Stream  of 
Time,    Spring,    Hope,    etc., —  subjects    which    Emerson 
may  well  have  chosen  for  essays.      Notice  the  titles  of 
the  graduation  essays  in  our  common  and  high  schools. 
How  seldom  we  find  one  which  is  suited  to  the  boy  or 
girl  of  twelve  or  sixteen. 

(2)  Choose  concrete  subjects.     A  child  can  tell  about 
his  own  dog  long  before  he  can  write  of  dogs  in  gen- 
eral.     Let  the  little  girl  write  about  her  own  doll,  her 
own  canary,  her  own  play-house,  instead  of  these  things 
in  general.     Have  pupils  describe  their  own  school-house 
and  grounds,  their  own  home,  their  own  school-room. 
Let  the  test  be  how  well  a  stranger  would  know  their 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  197 

home,  their  school-house,  their  school-room,  etc.,  after 
reading  their  description  of  it.  No  test  is  better  than 
the  self-testing  habit  of  reading  the  composition  after 
it  is  written  as  if  the  writer  were  a  stranger,  and  then 
see  whether  the  composition  will  give  him  a  clear  view 
of  the  object  or  subject. 

(3)  The   subjects   should  be   those   in   which   pupils 
are  interested.      Until  you  can  interest  pupils  in  a  sub- 
ject, you  can  get  only  labored  expression.      Some  of  us 
would  find  it  a  difficult  matter  to  write  upon  Greek  or 
Hebrew,  because  we  know  little  of  these  subjects  and 
care  perhaps  less   for  them.      Too  many   of  our  com- 
position subjects  are  Greek  and  Hebrew  to  our  pupils. 
We  choose    subjects    in    which    men    and    women    are 
interested,  instead  of  boys  and  girls.      In  teaching  com- 
position, as  well  as  in  managing  a  school,  it  is  unfortu- 
nate that  teachers  so  often  forget  the  things  of  interest 
to  boys  and  girls. 

(4)  Reproduction  stories  are  among  the  simplest  of 
composition  subjects,  and  have  an  endless  variety  to  the 
teachers  who  will  select  and  collect  them.      Three  plans, 
fitting  the  story  in  each  case  to  the  ability  of  the  class, 
are  often  used.     They  can  be  made  very  simple  or  they 
can  be  made  appropriate  for  the  advanced  class.      One 
plan  is  to  read  the  story  to  the  class  and  have  them  re- 
produce it  as  accurately  as  they  can.     This  requires  care- 
ful attention,  and  is  valuable  for  that  alone.      The  story 
should  be  read  slowly  and  distinctly  by  the  teacher,  but 
no   notes   taken.       Occasionally   a   pupil   may   read   the 
story.      It  may  be  reproduced  at  once  or  for  the  next 
day's  lesson.      Another  plan  is  to  have  the  pupil  read 
the  story  once  and  then  reproduce  it  in  the  same  way. 
Another  plan,  and  an  excellent  one  for  creating  an  inter- 


198  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

est,  is  to  read  the  plot  or  setting  of  the  story,  and  then 
have  each  pupil  complete  the  story  as  he  thinks  it 
should  end. 

(5)  Biographical   sketches   are   easy   and   important. 
Study  some  great  character.      Tell  the  story  of  his  life 
to  the  class  as  you  would  something  which  happened  on 
the  play-ground.      Have  them  read  all  they  can  of  him, 
and  bring  other  incidents.      After  they  are  full  of  infor- 
mation,  have    them   plan   and   write    it    systematically. 
Then  have  them  write  the  biographies  of  prominent  men 
in  the  town  or  county,  of  the  oldest  man  they  know, 
of  the  oldest  woman  they  know,  etc.      Most  old  persons 
would  tell  the  story  of  their  life  and  take  pleasure  in 
doing  it,  and  the  children  may  write  it  out  and  report. 
Let  me  protest  against  a  set  form  or  outline  in  this  work. 
It  is  a  good  thing  to  have  a  suggestive  outline,  but  they 
must  not  all  be  measured  by  the  same  topical  yard-stick. 
If  they  are,  they  will  be  stiff  and  formal. 

(6)  The  autobiography  is  a  good  composition  subject, 
but  by  its  very  nature  is  limited.     Akin  to  this  is  the 
imaginary  autobiography  which  may  be  made  very  inter- 
esting and  of  wide  application.      The  autobiography  of 
your  coat,  your  knife,  a  silver  dollar,  a  family  horse,  a 
sponge,  a  slate,  a  pencil,  a  stove,  and  numerous  other 
things  will  furnish  interesting  and  instructive  exercises 
for  your  composition  class. 

(7)  News  items  give  good  topics  for  composition  par- 
agraphs.   Have  pupils  conduct  a  school  paper  to  be  read 
once  or  twice  a  month  before  the  school.    For  two  years 
while  principal  of  a  high  school,  we  conducted  a  high 
school  paper  issued  in  neat,  high-grade  form,  the  con- 
tents of  which  were  selected  from  the  composition  work 
or  written  by  the  pupils  for  the  occasion.     It  more  than 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  199 

paid  financially,  and  was  a  good  stimulus  to  the  pupils. 
It  is  doubtful  however,  whether  a  school  paper  to  be  read 
before  the  school  or  to  be  printed  can  be  made  a  success 
without  a  censorship. 

(8)  Newspaper  interviews  are  good  topics  for  com- 
positions.    Send  pupils  to  interview  persons  upon  certain 
topics  and  to  report.     If  approached  properly  when  not 
too  busy,  few  men  of  the  town  will  refuse  an  interview. 
Teach  pupils  to  report  with  absolute  fidelity  to  the  state- 
ments made. 

(9)  Favorite  games  make  good  topics  for  composi- 
tion.    Let  pupils  describe  them  so  accurately  that  the 
uninitiated  may  understand  just  how  to  play  them  by 
the  description  given.     This  makes  an  excellent  test  and 
is  easily  applied,  for  the  pupil  can  reread  his  composition 
and  see  if  it  is  definite.     These  descriptions  will  furnish 
excellent  subjects  for  compositions   for  a  week  or  ten 
days. 

(10)  Subjects  for  debate  make  interesting  subjects 
for  composition.     Choose  subjects  of  local  interest  when 
possible.     Some  years  ago  my  senior  class  debated  how 
to  spend  $150  so  as  to  beautify  our  school  grounds.    Dis- 
cussions were  spirited  but  friendly.     Some  of  the  best 
compositions  were  published  in  the  local  papers,  and  the 
next  year  saw  several  beds  of  flowers,  a  grass"  plot,  and 
a   fountain  in   front  of  the  school-house,   the   fruits  of 
the  discussion,  to  say  nothing  of  its  value  as  English  com- 
position.    Teach  pupils  that  reason  and  argument  are 
the  things  which  count  in  debate,  and  discourage  all  per- 
sonalities so  often  mistaken  by  the  ignorant  as  argument. 

( 1 1 )  The  study  of  literature  will  give  numerous  sub- 
jects   for   composition.      My    note-book    on    Evangeline 
shows  upward  of  twenty  topics  used   in  the  past   for 


200  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

subjects  for  composition,  and  almost  any  piece  of  litera- 
ture will  give  topics  for  written  reviews. 

(12)  The  imaginary  story  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting, as  well  as  one  of  the  most  profitable,  composition 
exercises.  The  class  are  given  a  suggestive  outline  to 
be  filled  out  as  they  see  fit.  The  topics  are  suggestive 
and  yet  indefinite.  The  pupil  is  free  to  follow  his  fancy, 
and  it  is  a  splendid  way  to  break  the  ice  in  composition. 
So  many  pupils  feel  they  simply  cannot  write.  Whenever 
they  find  themselves  ready  to  build  the  story  suggested 
and  to  follow  their  own  imagination,  they  can  write 
freely.  Below  are  some  outlines  which  have  been  used 
successfully.  Any  teacher  can  readily  prepare  others 
just  as  good.  Then  again,  the  teacher  can  make  a  brief 
outline  of  some  short  story  he  has  read,  and  let  the  pupils 
dress  it  up  as  they  see  fit. 

The  Tricky  Goats. 

1.  A  boy. 

1.  His  name. 

2.  His  home. 

3.  Kind  of  boy. 

2.  Two  goats. 

1.  Their  name.^. 

2.  Where  he  got  them. 

3.  Breaking  them  to  work. 

4.  A  new  wagon. 

5.  An  accident. 

6.  Result. 

Going  Fishing. 

1.  Who  went. 

2.  Digging  bait. 

3.  Trouble  getting  ready. 

4.  Where  we  went. 

5.  A    tangled    line. 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  201 

6.  The  first  bite. 

7.  A  splash. 

8.  A  feast. 

9.  Homeward  bound. 

A  Day's  Hunt. 

1.  How  I  longed  for  the  day. 

2.  The  start. 

3.  My  companions. 

4.  Our  dogs. 

5.  The  first  game. 

6.  A  bad  shot. 

7.  A  shower. 

8.  Our  lunch. 

9.  An  accident. 

10.  Something  funny. 

11.  What  we  killed. 

12.  Our  return. 

The  Test. 

1.  Two  Georgia  boys  in  love  with  the  same  girl.     She  unde- 

cided. 

2.  A  call  for  soldiers  for  the  Spanish-American  War. 

The    girl    said,    "  Go    defend    your    country,    when    you 
return  I  will  give  you  my  answer." 

3.  A      battle  —  wounded      soldiers  —  a      hospital  —  lingering 

fever. 

4.  A  false  report. 

5.  Preparation  for  a  wedding. 

6.  An  unexpected  visitor. 

7.  A  sudden  change  of  plans. 

8.  Results. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

i.  Composition  is  made  a  bugbear  by  many  teachers 
by  overcriticism.  The  law  is  almost  universal  that  a 
person  will  accomplish  more  under  encouragement  than 
under  discouragement,  and  this  is  particularly  true  of 
compositions. 


202  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

Some  years  ago  I  was  boarding  in  the  city.  There  was 
a  boy  fourteen  years  old  in  the  family,  who  was  in  the 
first  year  high  school.  He  was  a  good  boy,  but  not  fluent 
in  speech.  Give  him  a  hammer  and  a  saw  and  a  plane 
and  some  nails,  and  he  could  express  himself,  but  it  was  a 
laborious  task  to  do  it  on  paper.  The  third  week  of 
high  school  he  had  to  write  a  composition.  He  worried 
about  it.  His  subject  was  "  The  Uses  of  the  Beautiful." 
His  teacher  was  a  college  graduate  of  high  standing,  and 
could  have  used  a  good-sized  slice  of  beauty  himself  to 
advantage.  The  boy  worked  three  hours  on  his  composi- 
tion, and  then  brought  it  to  my  room.  It  was  stiff,  but 
it  showed  honest  and  long-continued  effort.  He  copied 
it  carefully,  and  went  to  school  next  day  light  hearted. 

Three  days  later  he  came  home  despondent,  and 
hardly  reached  the  room  until  he  cried  bitterly.  He  re- 
ceived his  essay,  and  really  it  looked  as  if  it  had  had 
the  smallpox.  It  was  literally  cut  to  pieces  and  covered 
with  red  ink.  At  the  bottom,  in  a  shamefully  scrawling 
hand,  was  the  comment,  "  You  will  have  to  do  better 
than  this  if  you  pass  in  English."  Shame  on  a  teacher 
who  makes  such  comment  on  a  pupil's  best  effort.  Do 
you  think  that  made  his  thoughts  flow  freely  and  his 
pen  glide  swiftly  and  accurately  upon  the  next  composi- 
tion? What  a  difference  it  would  have  made  to  have 
written,  "  You  made  several  mistakes,  but  you  will  im- 
prove, and  I  think  you  can  do  better  next  time."  .It  is 
only  the  careless  and  indifferent  who  need  such  harsh 
statements.  Then  the  teacher  corrected  every  error,  even 
to  recasting  the  sentences  to  give  them  more  strength. 
Had  he  confined  his  corrections  to  one  or  two  faults,  it 
would  not  have  been  so  discouraging,  and  at  the  same 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  203 

time  the  emphasis  centered  upon  these  mistakes  would 
have  probably  prevented  their  recurrence. 

2.  Pupils  are  tonguetied  in  expression,  and  to  loosen 
their  expression  is  the  first  duty  of  the  teacher  of  com- 
position.    The  experience  of  most  of  us  when  we  began 
writing  compositions  was  that  as  soon  as  we  took  up  our 
pencil   our  thoughts   were   gone.     We   could   not  think 
and  write  at  the  same  time.     Practice  alone  will  over- 
come this.     The  only  way  to  learn  to  write  is  to  write. 
To  learn  to  swim  without  going  into  the  water  is  per- 
haps as  easily  done  as  to  learn  to  write  without  practic- 
ing.    Get  the  pupil  interested  in  the  subject.     When  he 
wants  to  talk,  it  is  only  a  step  to  the  written  composition. 
Encourage   the   timid    ones.      Commend    honest    effort. 
It  is  not  so  much  where  they  stand  and  what  they  can 
do,  but  in  what  direction  they  face  and  their  rate  of  prog- 
ress,  that  counts.      Some  pupils   feel  that  they   simply 
cannot  write,  and  nothing  helps  them  so  much  as  en- 
couragement when  they  have  made  honest  effort. 

3.  Do  not  be  discouraged  as  long  as  there  is  thought 
in  the  composition.     Pruning  is  hard  work,  but  it  can  be 
done.      Do  not  criticize  too  many  things  at  a  time.     Teach 
the  class  to  criticize  their  own  work.      Have  them  ex- 
change papers  and  read  them,  looking  for  specific  things, 
as   misspelled   words,    proper   margins,    arrangement   of 
paper,  poorly  constructed  sentences,  wrong  use  of  words, 
etc.      This  is  useful  to  the  pupil  in  fixing  standards  of 
correctness  and  excellence.     Call  attention  to  neat,  ac- 
curate  papers,   and   to   improvement   from   day   to   day. 
There   is   hope   as   long  as   the  pupils   have   something 
to  say.     They  may  be  crude  in  expression,  but  they  will 
improve  by  watchful  care  and  encouragement. 

4.  Material  for  expression  first,  and  then  practice,  is 


204  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

the  order  to  be  followed.  Teach  pupils  to  think,  then 
write,  writing  rapidly  after  their  plans  are  made.  If 
they  have  but  half  an  hour  to  write,  it  is  well  for  them 
to  spend  ten  minutes  of  the  time  in  planning  how  they 
will  treat  the  subject.  "  Out  of  the  fulness  of  the  heart 
the  mouth  speaketh  "  was  said  a  long  time  ago,  and  it 
is  out  of  the  fulness  of  mind  the  hand  writeth.  If  pupils 
are  to  describe  a  house,  out  of  the  abundance  of  material, 
they  must  select  and  plan  how  to  describe  it  best.  At 
first  some  may  tell  of  the  chimneys,  then  the  basement, 
and  then  the  roof,  but  by  talking  with  the  class,  telling 
them  how  to  describe  it  from  some  particular  view- 
point, you  can  note  an  improvement  in  a  short  time. 

5.  Avoid    nagging.      Perhaps    the    greatest    fault   of 
the  teacher  of  composition  is  the  habit  of  nagging.    The 
work  is  hard  and  the  discouragements  are  many.     Day 
after  day  the  same  mistake  will  be  made  by  some  pupil 
in  the  class,  and  often  by  the  same  pupil,  and  yet  sourness 
and  grumbling  and  fussing  and  nagging  will  not  cure 
it  nor  come  half  so  near  it  as  a  cheerful  appeal  to  do 
his  best,  and  a  kindly  reference  to  any  improvement  you 
may  note,  and  especially  an  appreciation  of  honest  effort. 

6.  Have  pupils  write  for  some  audience,  real  or  imag- 
inary.     Few  of  us  care  to  write  when  no  one  is  to  hear 
it   or   read   it.     Then   again,   every   composition    should 
have  a  purpose  and  be  written  from  that  standpoint.  If 
you  will  name  a  purpose,  however,  when  no  one,  real  or 
imaginary,  is  to  read  it,  it  would  be  a  poor  one  indeed. 
Suppose  a  pupil  is  to  write  a  letter  to  some  little  Filipino 
boy  describing  the  sport  of  snowballing.     The  Filipino 
knows  nothing  whatever  about  the  snow,  and  the  letter 
would  be  quite  different  from  a  letter  to  a  school  boy  in 
Ohio  describing  the  sport  of  snowballing.     It  is  often 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION  205 

quite  as  valuable,  and  of  as  much  assistance  to  a  class 
to  know  for  whom  they  are  to  write  as  to  know  of  what 
to  write.  Note  what  a  difference  in  the  tone  of  your 
letters  to  different  people,  even  though  you  speak  of 
practically  the  same  things. 

One  of  the  best  helps  for  a  pupil  is  to  be  taught  to 
read  his  composition  after  it  is  complete,  criticizing  it 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  reader  for  whom  it  was  in- 
tended. Is  it  clear?  Is  it  fully  expressed?  Is  it  com- 
plete? Does  it  give  one  a  definite  understanding  of  the 
subject  treated?  Such  catechizing  of  one's  self  is  the 
best  basis  for  correction,  revision,  and  rewriting  of 
the  composition  for  final  disposition. 


XXIV.     GRAMMAR 

was  a  time  when  formal  grammar  was  the 
only  phase  of  English  studied  in  the  school.  Later  a 
reaction  came.  It  was  found  that  pupils,  glib  in  rattling 
off  parsing,  were  often  shamefully  inaccurate  in  the 
use  of  English.  The  language  lesson  then  came,  and 
has  gradually  pushed  its  way  to  the  front  until  we  are 
in  danger  of  the  other  extreme.  Formal  grammar  has 
its  place,  and  a  creditable  one,  in  the  school  course,  but 
it  should  not  be  introduced  as  a  study  until,  perhaps,  the 
seventh  year,  and  never  below  the  sixth. 

Pupils  until  that  time  are  not  sufficiently  developed 
mentally  to  make  a  profitable  study  of  grammar.  Their 
time  is  more  profitably  spent  in  forming  right  habits  of 
expression,  mastering  the  more  mechanical  side  of  Eng- 
lish, and  in  breaking  up  improper  habits  of  speech  already 
formed,  than  in  delving  into  the  deeper  technicalities  of 
the  science  of  language. 

There  has  been  much  confusion  as  to  the  purpose  of 
grammar.  This  crops  out  in  the  definitions  of  grammar. 
Lindley  Murray  in,  perhaps,  the  first  exclusively  Eng- 
lish grammar  written,  gives  the  following  definition : 
"  English  grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing 
the  English  language  with  propriety."  Samuel  Kirk- 
ham,  whose  grammar  was  only  less  widely  used  than 
Murray's,  defines  grammar  as  "  The  science  of  lan- 
guage." Thus  the  two  views  have  held  sway  since. 
One  holds  that  grammar  is  an  art  meant  to  improve 
the  student's  use  of  language,  and  the  other  that  it  is  a 

206 


GRAMMAR  207 

science  meant  to  give  the  student  a  comprehension  of 
the  structure  of  the  language.  A  pleasing  definition  by 
one  who  believed  that  its  principles  should  be  the  cri- 
terion for  accurate  expression  is,  "  Grammar  is  the 
oft-despised  servant,  but  the  ever-loyal  handmaid  of 
thought's  best  expression." 

The  improvement  of  the  child's  use  of  language  be- 
longs primarily  to  the  language  lesson,  and  is  based 
upon  his  power  of  imitation.  The  child's  habits  are 
largely  fixed  before  it  begins  the  study  of  formal  gram- 
mar, and  yet  the  proper  study  of  grammar  will  uproot 
many  inaccuracies  and  give  the  reason  for  the  inaccuracy. 
The  corrections  of  mistakes,  however,  are  more  inci- 
dental and  could  hardly  be  said  to  be  the  purpose  of  the 
study. 

The  unit  of  grammar  is  the  sentence.  Use  is  the  only 
test  of  the  part  of  speech  of  a  word.  Upon  an  exam- 
ination in  grammar  in  the  schools  of  a  certain  city  a 
few  years  ago,  the  applicants  were  asked  to  give  three 
adjectives  used  as  adverbs.  One  replied  that  an  adjective 
could  not  be  used  as  an  adverb.  If  it  were  used  in  an 
adverbial  sense,  it  was  an  adverb  and  not  an  adjective. 
He  was  graded  zero  upon  that  point,  and  yet  he  was  right. 
In  an  educational  journal  recently  a  writer  took  the 
position  that  if  use  in  the  sentence  were  the  test  of  a  part 
of  speech,  we  could  have  no  dictionary.  He  forgot  that 
the  dictionary  only  reflects  the  usage  of  words  in  the 
sentence  or  in  discourse.  There  is  no  word  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  which  may  not  be  used  as  a  noun.  Use 
in  the  sentence  being  the  test,  it  follows,  then,  that  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  sentence  with  its  elements  and 
modifiers  should  form  the  basis  of  grammar  study. 
t  There  are  two  methods  of  approaching  the  sentence, 


208  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

which  may  be  appropriately  called  the  deductive  and  the 
inductive.  The  first  starts  with  the  general  principles 
as  formulated  in  the  grammars  and  goes  to  the  individ- 
ual facts.  The  second  starts  with  the  individual  facts 
and  builds  up  the  general  principles  by  comparison  and 
classification.  It  matters  little  which  of  these  methods  is 
used,  so  long  as  the  teacher  gets  proper  results,  and 
good  results  may  be  had  from  either.  The  second 
method  is  growing  in  favor,  and  under  a  well-trained 
teacher  has  many  strong  points.  Perhaps  the  worst 
failure  comes  from  the  teacher  who  undertakes  to  teach 
the  subject  inductively  after  but  a  few  weeks'  study 
of  the  inductive  method.  The  inspiration  coming  from 
a  few  weeks'  study  at  a  summer  school,  he  begins  to 
apply  the  method  before  he  is  able  to  make  reliable  gen- 
eralizations, and  both  teacher  and  class  are  at  sea,  and 
often  without  chart  or  compass. 

Whether  the  pupil  is  taught  inductively  or  deduc- 
tively, he  should  leave  school  with  the  ability  to  analyze 
and  classify  sentences  and  point  out  all  ordinary  mistakes. 
His  knowledge  of  the  sentence  should  be  organized. 
Just  the  exact  form  matters  little,  but  he  should  be  able 
to  divide  it  into  its  elements  and  classify  these  elements 
properly.  This  outline  may  be  suggestive  to  the  teacher. 
He  may  add  to  it  or  take  from  it,  but  he  should  make 
sure  that  the  pupil  has  a  clear  and  definite  outline  more 
or  less  complete  in  mind. 

OUTLINE;  OF  THE; 
i1  Kinds. 

i2  As  to  rank. 

I3  Principal. 
23  Subordinate. 


GRAMMAR  209 

i4  Substantive,  —  may  be. 

i5  The  subject  of  a  verb. 
25  The  object  of  a  verb. 
35  The  object  of  a  preposition. 
45  The  complement  of  a  copula. 
55  In  apposition. 
65  Independent. 
24  Adverbial. 

i5  Modifying  an  adverb  or  an  ad- 
jective to  express  degree. 
25  Modifying  a  verb  to  express 
i6  Time. 
26  Place. 
36  Degree. 
46  Condition. 
56  Manner. 
66  Purpose. 
76  Reason. 
86  Concession. 
3*  Adjective. 

i5  Restrictive. 
25  Explanatory. 
22  As  to  structure. 
i3  Simple. 
23  Compound. 
33  Partial  compound. 
43  Complex. 
53  Complete. 
63  Abridged. 
32  As  to  use. 

i3  Declarative. 
23  Interrogative. 
33  Exclamatory. 

14 


210  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

43  Imperative. 

2l  Elements  of  the  sentence. 
i2  According  to  rank. 
i3  Principal. 

i4  Subject. 

24  Predicate  —  consists   of 
i5  Copula. 
i6  Pure. 
26  Impure. 
36  Complex. 
25  Attribute  —  may  be 
i6  Noun. 
26  Pronoun. 
36  Participle. 

46  Infinitive  used  as  noun. 
56  Noun  clause. 
66  Adjective. 
76  Infinitive. 
86  Prepositional  phrase. 
23  Subordinate. 
22  According  to  structure. 
i3  Simple. 
23  Complex. 
33  Compound. 
32  According  to  use. 
i3  Adjective. 
23  Objective. 
35  Subjective. 
43  Adverbial. 
53  Attendant. 
63  Connective. 

i4  Coordinate  —  coordinate  conjunction. 
24  Subordinate. 


GRAMMAR  211 

i5  Subordinate    conjunction. 

25  Relative  pronoun. 

35  Conjunctive  adverb. 

45  Conjunctive  adjective. 

55  Preposition. 
42  According  to  base. 
i3  First  class. 
23  Second   class. 
33  Third  class. 

Diagramming  has  fallen  rapidly  into  disuse  the  past 
few  years.  It  has  many  advantages,  and  the  fact  that 
it  has  been  abused  in  the  past  is  no  excuse  for  discard- 
ing it  entirely.  Many  a  person  can  testify  that  it  was 
through  diagramming  that  his  first  real  interest  in  gram- 
mar study  began.  There  are  a  number  of  good  systems. 
Each  may  have  its  good  and  bad  points.  Whatever 
system  is  used  should  be  uniform  in  the  school,  that  all 
may  understand  it.  All  work  should  be  neatly  arranged 
on  blackboard  or  paper.  Lines  should  be  neatly  drawn 
and  the  writing  neatly  done.  Do  not  forget  that  the 
thought  is  the  essential  thing  in  the  sentence,  and  that 
the  purpose  of  the  diagram  is  to  indicate  clearly  to  the 
eye  that  the  pupil  has  mastered  the  thought.  Do  not 
make  diagramming  a  hobby,  but  used  legitimately  it  is 
an  excellent  device. 

Pupils  should  have  also  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
parts  of  speech  with  their  properties  and  modifications. 
This  knowledge  should  be  organized  and  definite.  The 
pupil  should  be  able  to  reproduce  from  memory  the 
outline  of  any  part  of  speech,  giving  the  main  divisions, 
modifications,  and  properties. 

Parsing  was  once  carried  to  an  extreme,  but  now  we 
are  swinging  too  far  the  other  way.  Parsing  consists 


212  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

in  naming  the  part  of  speech,  telling  its  properties  and 
modifications,  and  pointing  out  its  relation  to  other 
words  in  the  sentence.  Its  main  object  is  to  train  the 
pupil  to  distinguish  the  use  of  words,  and  thus  to  see 
the  relation  words  bear  to  one  another  and  the  force  they 
have  in  modifying  the  meaning  of  a  sentence.  It  does 
not  make  one  more  fluent  in  writing,  but  it  teaches  him 
to  understand  more  clearly  the  force  of  language  and 
enables  him  to  use  it  with  more  precision.  Another  ob- 
ject is  its  mental  discipline.  It  trains  the  pupil  to 
verify  the  definitions  and  the  various  parts  of  speech, 
their  subdivisions,  and  their  properties.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent drill. 

Parsing,  for  beginners,  should  be  simple,  consisting 
mainly  in  naming  the  parts  of  speech.  As  classes,  sub- 
divisions, and  properties  are  learned,  these  may  be  added 
to  the  above  also. 

Pupils  should,  from  the  very  first,  be  taught  to  give 
the  reason  for  every  statement,  and  this  should  be  con- 
tinued until  these  reasons  are  fully  understood.  In 
parsing  a  noun  let  pupils  state  — 

1.  A   noun,    and   why. 

2.  Kind  of  noun,  and  why. 

3.  Gender,  person,  and  number,  and  why. 

4.  Case,  and  why. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Mary  bought  a  book,"  let  the 
pupil  state: — 

Mary  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  a  name.  Proper  noun, 
because  it  is  the  name  of  a  particular  person.  Feminine 
gender,  it  denotes  a  female.  Third  person,  it  is  the 
person  spoken  of.  Singular  number,  it  denotes  but  one. 
Nominative  case,  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 


GRAMMAR  213 

Rule :  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  in  the  nominative 
case. 

When  the  pupils  have  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  reason  for  each  step,  a  briefer  form  may  be 
substituted,  and  with  advanced  classes  simply  the  part 
of  speech  with  its  subdivision  and  its  construction  will 
suffice. 

It  is  a  profitable  exercise  for  pupils  to  write  the 
parsing,  as  it  requires  them  to  think  and  make  up  their 
mind  on  each  point.  A  definite  form  of  abbreviation 
may  be  adopted  for  this  written  parsing  and  carefully 
adhered  to.  Using  the  sentence  above,  the  following  is 
a  good  form :  — 

Mary,  n.,  prop.,  fern.,  3rd,  sing.,  nom.,  used  as  sub- 
ject, rule. 

Bought,  v.,  trans.,  prin.  parts,  buy,  bought,  bought, 
act,  ind.,  past,  3rd,  sing.,  rule. 

Book,  n.,  common,  neu.,  3rd,  sing.,  obj.,  used  as  the 
obj.  of  verb  bought,  rule. 

Let  me  emphasize  in  the  study  of  grammar  a  thorough 
study  of  the  verb.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  pupils  learned 
to  use  the  tense  forms  correctly  in  childhood.  If  they 
did,  they  are  fortunate;  if  they  did  not,  the  only  way 
to  break  former  habits  and  put  them  on  solid  footing 
is  by  a  thorough  study  of  the  conjugation  of  the  verb. 
Here,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  greatest  weakness  of  many 
of  the  recent  grammars.  Conjugation  is  scattered. 
There  is  no  adequate  summary  of  the  forms.  The 
pupils  do  not  get  a  bird's-eye  view  of  these  changes. 
So  many  pupils  are  leaving  school  without  the  ability 
to  use  or  recognize  the  voice,  mode,  and  tense  from 
the  form  of  the  verb.  See  that  your  pupils  know  these 
facts. 


214  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

1.  Verbs  have  an  active  and  a  passive  voice. 

2.  The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  the  verb  "  to  be  "  to  the  perfect  participle. 

3.  Pupils  must  have  these  forms  of  the  verb  "  to  be  " 
at  their  tongue's  end.     Do  not  hesitate  to  have  them 
committed  to  memory.     There  is  no  other  substitute. 

4.  Verbs  have  five  modes.     If  your  text-book  gives 
less,  accept  it,  but  make  sure  of  their  names  and  what 

,  they  indicate. 

5.  There  are  six  tenses, —  the  present,  present  per- 
fect, past,  past  perfect,  future,  and  future  perfect.    Your 
text  may  not  call  them  just  these  names.     Do  not  find 
fault  with  this,  but  follow  the  text  in  use,  and  see  that 
your  pupils  learn  them  thoroughly. 

6.  All  these  tenses  are  not  found  in  each  mode.    The 
Indicative  mode  has  all  six  of  them.      The  Subjunctive 
mode  has  three, —  the  present,   the  past,   and   the  past 
perfect.     The    Potential    mode    has    four    tenses, —  the 
present,  the  present  perfect,  the  past,  and  the  past  perfect. 
The  Imperative  mode  has  but  one  tense, —  the  present. 
The  Infinitive  rnode  has  two  tenses  —  the  present  and 
the  present  perfect. 

7.  The  signs  of  the  tenses  in  the  different  modes. 

Indicative. 

Present. —  The  simple  form  of  the  verb. 

Present  Perfect.— Prefix  "  has  "  or  "have"  to  the 
perfect  participle. 

Past.— If  regular,  add  "  d  "  or  "  ed  "  to  the  simple 
form.  If  irregular,  consult  the  dictionary. 

Past  Perfect.—  Prefix  "  had  "  or  "  hadst "  to  the  per- 
fect participle. 

Future.—  Prefix  "shall"  or  "will"  to  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb. 


GRAMMAR  215 

Future  Perfect. —  Prefix'"  shall  have  "  or  "  will  have  " 
to  the  perfect  participle. 

Subjunctive. 

The  signs  of  the  subjunctive  —  if,  though,  except, 
unless,  etc.,  placed  before  the  indicative  forms,  give 
the  subjunctive. 

Potential. 

Present.— Prefix,  "may,"  "can,"  or  "must"  to  the 
simple  form  of  the  verb. 

Present  Perfect. —  Prefix  "  may,"  "  can,"  or  "  must 
have  "  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Past.—  Prefix  "  might,"  "  could,"  "  would,"  or 
"  should  "  to  the  simple  form. 

Past  Perfect.— Prefix  "might,"  "could,"  "would," 
or  "  should  have  "  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Imperative. 

The  verb  "  let,"  or  a  plain  command  with  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb,  indicates  the  imperative. 

Infinitive. 

Present. —  Prefix  the  sign  "  to  "  to  the  simple  form 
of  the  verb. 

Present  Perfect. —  Prefix  "  to  have  "  to  the  perfect 
participle. 

8.  Conjugation  is  the  correct  expression  in  regular 
order  of  the  voice,  mode,  tense,  person,  and  number  of 
verbs. 

9.  The  synopsis  of  a  verb  differs  from  the  conjuga- 
tion in  that  only  a  singular  number  and  person  is  used. 

Let  me  insist  that  advanced  pupils  must  be  thor- 
oughly drilled  on  these  points.  They  are  not  difficult, 
and  they  may  be  made  intensely  interesting.  These  points 
well  learned  give  a  basis  for  intelligent  testing,  and  cor- 


216  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

recting  many  common  mistakes  in  speaking  and  writing. 
The  giving  of  the  signs  of  the  tenses  in  detail  above 
may  be  pardoned  when  it  is  remembered  that  many  of 
our  recent  grammars  scatter  such  points  throughout  a 
series  of  lessons,  with  no  attempt  at  summarizing  them. 
Teachers  and  pupils  fail  to  clinch  the  subject.  In  a  few 
weeks'  time  a  class  can  fasten  these  facts  in  mind  until 
they  become  a  permanent  possession  and  an  ever-ready 
criterion  by  which  to  judge  the  correctness  of  their  own 
speech  or  another's. 

Much  practice  and  frequent  reviews  must  follow. 
Drill  on  it  until  each  member  of  the  class  is  able  to  give 
readily  either  the  synopsis  or  the  conjugation  of  any 
verb  in  the  active  voice,  and  the  passive  also,  if  the 
verb  can  be  used  in  a  passive  sense.  Practice  until  they 
can  give  accurately  the  voice,  mode,  tense,  person,  and 
number  of  any  verb  with  a  mere  glance  at  its  form.  A 
careful  study  of  the  verb  and  the  other  parts  of  speech 
gives  mental  discipline  unsurpassed  by  any  subject  in 
the  school  curriculum. 


XXV.    LITERATURE 

LITERATURE;  may  well  be  called  the  appreciative  phase 
of  English  study.  The  teacher  who  can  lead  a  child 
to  the  proper  appreciation  of  a  piece  of  literature,  places 
that  child  on  a  higher  plane.  The  beauty,  the  uplift,  the 
inspiration  which  comes  from  a  beautiful  thought  clothed 
in  beautiful  language  sinks  deep,  and  eternity  alone  can 
measure  its  influence.  Where  can  you  find  a  more  po- 
tent sermon,  a  clearer  picture  of  sordid  life,  than  in  the 
prelude  of  Whittier's  "Among  the  Hills "  ?  Let  our 
pupils  commit  these  lines  to  memory,  and  see  the  picture, 
and  the  inspiration  for  better  conditions  will  come,  and 
with  the  inspiration  the  homes  of  our  country  will  take 
on  a  different  aspect. 

"I  look 

Across  the  lapse  of  half  a  century, 
And  call  to  mind  old  homesteads,  where  no  flower 
Told  that  the  spring  had  come,  but  evil  weeds, 
Nightshade  and  rough-leaved  burdock,  in  the  place 
Of  the  sweet  doorway  greeting  of  the  rose 
And  honeysuckle,  where  the  house  walls  seemed 
Blistering  in  sun,  without  a  tree  or  vine 
To  cast  the  tremulous  shadow  of  its  leaves 
Across  the  curtainless  windows  from  whose  panes 
Fluttered  the  signal  rags  of  shiftlessness ; 
Within,  the  cluttered  kitchen  floor,  unwashed 
(Broom-clean  I  think  they  called  it)  ;  the  best  room 
Stifling  with  cellar  damp,  shut  from  the  air 
In   hot   midsummer,   bookless,   pictureless 
Save  the  inevitable  sampler  hung 
Over  the  fireplace,  or  mourning  piece. 
A  green-haired  woman,  peony-cheeked,  beneath 
217 


218  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

Impossible  willows;  the  wide-throated  hearth 
Bristling  with  faded  pine  boughs  half  concealing 
The  piled-up   rubbish   at  the   chimney's  back; 
And,  in  sad  keeping  with  all  things  about  them, 
Shrill,  querulous  women,  sour  and  sullen  men, 
Untidy,  loveless,  old  before  their  time, 
With  scarce  a  human  interest  save  their  own 
Monotonous  round  of  small  economies, 
Or  the  poor  scandal  of  the  neighborhood; 
Blind  to  the  beauty  everywhere  revealed, 
Treading  the  May-flowers  with  regardless  feet; 
For  them  the  song-sparrow  and  the  bobolink 
Sang  not,  nor  winds  made  music  in  the  leaves ; 
For  them  in  vain  October's  holocaust 
Burned,  gold  and  crimson,  over  all  the  hills, 
The  sacramental  mystery  6f  the  woods. 
Church-goers,  fearful  of  the  unseen  Powers, 
But  grumbling  over  pulpit  tax  and  pew  rent, 
Saving,  as  shrewd  economists,  their  souls 
And  winter  pork  with  the  least  possible  outlay 
Of  salt  and  sanctity;  in  daily  life 
Showing  as  little  actual  comprehension 
Of  Christian  charity  and  love  and  duty, 
As  if  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  had  been 
Outdated  like  a  last-year's  almanac : 
Rich  in  broad  woodlands  and  in  half-tilled  fields, 
And  yet  so  pinched  and  bare  and  comfortless, 
The  veriest  straggler,  limping  on  his  rounds, 
The  sun  and  air  his  sole  inheritance, 
Laughed  at  a  poverty  that  paid  its  taxes, 
And  hugged  his  rags  in  self-complacency  !  " 

But  what  constitutes  pure  literature?  By  what  cri- 
terion do  we  draw  the  line  between  literature  and  other 
forms  of  writing?  What  distinguishes  pure  literature 
from  the  news  article?  What  distinguishes  literature 
from  the  statements  of  history  or  of  scientific  truths? 


LITERATURE  219 

The  criterion  is,  that  the  constructive  energy   of  pure 
literature  is  ff  universal,  ideal,  emotional  life." 

1.  Pure   literature   must   be   universal.     Lowell   tells 
us  that  a  literary  man  cannot  air  his  private  liver  com- 
plaint to  the  public.      He  tells  us  again  in  another  place 
his  conception  of  literature :    "  Literature  that  loses  its 
meaning,  or  the  best  part  of  it,  when  it  gets  beyond  the 
parish  steeple,  is  not  what  I  understand  by  literature.    To 
tell  you  when  you  cannot  taste  a  book  that  it  is  because 
it  is  too  thoroughly  national,  is  to  condemn  the  book. 
To  say  it  of  a  poem  is  even  worse,  for  it  is  to  say  that 
what  should  be  true  of  the  whole  compass  of  human  na- 
ture is  true  only  to  some  north-and-by-half-east  point  of 
it.      I  can  understand  the  nationality  of  Firdusi  when, 
looking  sadly  back  to  the  former  glories  of  his  country, 
he  tells  us  that  '  the  nightingale  still  sings  old  Persian/ 
I  can  understand  the  nationality  of  Burns  when  he  turns 
his  plow  aside  to  spare  the  rough  burr  thistle,  and  hopes 
to  sing  a  song  or  two  for  dear  old  Scotia's  sake.     That 
sort  of  nationality  belongs  to  a  country  of  which  we  all 
are  citizens  —  that  country  of  the  heart  which  has  no 
boundaries  laid  down  on  the  map." 

2.  Pure    literature   must    be    ideal.      The    lessons    it 
brings  are  the  ideals  of  the  soul's  possibilities.     It  quick- 
ens in  the  individual  soul  the  inspirations  which  are  uni- 
versal.    The  beautiful  friendship  of  Damon  and  Pythias 
is  above  our  selfishness  —  an  ideal  lifting  us  above  our- 
selves, creating  in  us  higher  aspirations  and  showing  us 
our  own  possibilities.      There  are  of  course  various  de- 
grees  of   idealization.      Heroism   may   be   idealized   and 
uplifting,  and  yet  not  be  to  the  degree  of  idealization  of 
Enoch  Arden.      The   strength  and  beauty   of  woman's 


220  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

devotion  may  be  well  worth  emulation,  and  yet  not  reach 
the  standard  of  Evangeline. 

j.  Pure  literature  must  be  emotional.  It  deals  more 
with  the  heart  than  the  head.  The  emotions  of  litera- 
ture are  of  various  kinds,  but  they  may  all  be  summed  up 
in  the  emotions  of  spiritual  freedom.  The  soul  is  con- 
stantly struggling  to  free  itself  from  bondage,  and  every 
time  a  limitation  is  removed  the  soul  leaps  with  joy. 
Here  lies  much  of  the  educative  power  of  literature. 
The  all-inclusive  pleasure  of  literature  is  the  soul's  joy 
in  its  hopes  and  its  possibilities  of  freedom.  The  reader, 
if  he  really  reads,  is  forced  to  live  the  ideal  life  pictured 
in  literature,  and  thus  from  day  to  day  his  soul  attains 
unto  higher  levels. 

In  the  study  of  a  selection  of  literature  the  first  thing 
is  to  find  the  author's  theme.  The  second  is  to  test  this 
theme  by  the  questions:  (i)  Is  it  universal?  (2)  Is 
it  ideal?  (3)  Is  it  emotional?  These  tests  will  de- 
termine the  class  of  literature  to  which  it  belongs. 

The  theme  of  literature  is  its  soul  or  purpose,  but 
this  soul  must  have  a  body.  The  writer  of  literature 
does  not  speak  in  abstract  terms.  He  embodies  his 
thoughts  in  concrete,  visible  forms.  The  ideal  image  is 
presented  in  the  real,  the  universal  in  the  individual, 
and  these  objective  or  concrete  particulars  become  types 
or  symbols  of  the  abstract  or  the  universal.  Thus  Hes- 
ter, in  the  "  Scarlet  Letter,"  and  Jean  Valjean  in  "  Les 
Miserables,"  are  realizations  of  universal  principles  in 
human  nature.  The  building  and  the  launching  of  the 
ship  with  Longfellow  are  typical  of  human  life.  He 
who  reads  "  Evangeline  "  and  sees  nothing  but  Evange- 
line the  individual,  loses  most  of  the  poem.  Evangeline 
is  the  concrete,  individual  form  or  embodiment  of  the 


LITERATURE  221 

abstract  and  universal  —  woman's  devotion.  To  see  the 
universal  symbolized  by  the  particular,  to  see  Evange- 
line  no  longer  as  an  individual,  but  as  a  type,  an  ideal 
to  which  our  own  soul  may  aspire,  gives  life  to  the  study 
of  literature  and  makes  it  a  monitor  to  our  soul. 

Language  is  the  medium  which  carries  the  theme 
through  the  embodiment  to  the  reader.  In  other  forms 
of  art,  as  sculpture  and  painting,  the  embodiment  stands 
alone,  and  the  reader  must  make  out  of  it  what  he  can. 
Literature,  however,  is  more  plastic.  It  may  represent 
the  change,  the  rate  of  progress  or  development.  Lan- 
guage brings  a  vivid  image  before  the  mind,  and  may 
give  the  meaning  of  the  image  in  terms  of  life.  Literary 
language  must  be  beautiful.  Its  interpretation  must 
yield  aesthetic  pleasure  —  not  only  aesthetic  pleasure,  but 
sensuous  pleasure,  also.  It  must  caress  the  ear.  These 
pleasing  qualities  give  rise  to  euphony,  rhythm,  and 
rhyme  in  all  its  various  forms.  It  includes  alliteration 
and  the  balanced  sentence.  Language  has  both  a  form 
side  and  a  sense  side.  It  is  the  incarnation  of  thought, 
and  the  soul  is  indispensable  to  the  body.  Language 
also  awakens  sensuous  pleasure  by  stimulating  the  imagi- 
nation and  the  judgment.  The  connotation  of  the  lan- 
guage is  often  more  than  the  denotation. 

In  Institute  work  requests  often  come  for  a  discussion 
of  college  entrance  requirements  in  literature.  One  such 
query  asks  that  the  discussion  be  made  for  those  teachers 
who  have  charge  of  the  smaller  high  schools  and  to 
make  it  specific  so  that  a  teacher  with  little  special  train- 
ing may  find  it  helpful. 

I  shall  begin  by  saying  that  the  greatest  fault,  perhaps, 
in  the  study  of  such  literature*  is  the  vagueness  and  in- 
definiteness  of  the  views  of  both  the  teacher  and  the 


222  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

pupil.  The  pupil  does  not  know  what  to  look  for  and 
the  teacher  does  not  know  what  to  teach.  You  cannot 
expect  clear-cut,  definite  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil  when  the  teacher's  view  of  the  subject  is  a  vague, 
indefinite,  shadowy  something,  —  a  ghost-like  shape  of 
generalities  —  he  hardly  knows  what. 

The  College  Entrance  Requirements  are  divided  into 
two  parts:  (/)  Those  for  Critical  Study;  (2}  Those  for 
General  Reading. 

Taking  up  the  first  part,  those  for  critical  study, 
I  should  summarize  the  aims  of  the  study  as  follows : — 

1.  To  secure  a  careful   study  of  a   few   representative 

masterpieces  of  different  periods  of  English  Litera- 
ture, and  to  make  this  study  intensive  and  reason- 
ably exhaustive. 

2.  To    secure    as    complete    an    understanding    of    the 

author's  thought  as  is  possible.      This  will  require 
pupils  — 

(1)  To  learn  all  new  words  with  any  peculiar 

meaning  the  author  may  give  them. 

(2)  To   understand   all    historical,   geographical, 

biographical,   Biblical,   literary,   or   mytho- 
logical terms. 

(3)  To  understand  the  grammatical  structure  of 

sentences. 

(4)  To  understand  the  force,  beauty,  and  fitness 

of  figurative  expressions. 

3.  To  be  able  to  imagine,  with  vividness  and  accuracy, 

the  places,  persons,  and  scenes  as  the  author  saw 
them  in  his  mind's  eye. 

4.  To  feel  the  emotions  the  author  felt  in  the  creation 

of  the  literary  character. 


LITERATURE  223 

5.  To  find,   as   far  as  possible,   the   elements  of   force, 

beauty,  sublimity,  humor,  or  pathos,  in  the  author's 
language. 

6.  To  learn  standards  for  judging  literary  art. 

7.  To  learn  how  to  study  a  selection  of  literature,   so 

the  method  can  be  used  in  the  study  of  other  se- 
lections. 

8.  To  store  the  mind  with  gems  of  prose  and  poetry, 

to  assimilate  them  and  recite  them  orally,  with  force 
and  effectiveness. 

9.  To  appreciate  the  selection  studied.      This  is  one  of 

the  greatest  aims,  and  upon  it  depends  the  effective- 
ness of  literature  as  an  uplifting  force  in  the  lives 
of  pupils. 

The  second  part  of  those  selections  for  general  read- 
ing are  to  be  studied  mainly  outside  of  the  class-room. 
The  aims  are: — 

1.  To  acquire  the  power  of  reading  books  intelligently 

and  more  or  less  rapidly  under  the  guidance  of  the 
teacher. 

2.  To  present  written  reports,  or  abstracts  of  books  read. 

and  to  show  in  these  reports  the  ability  to  apply  the 
principles  and  methods  learned  in  the  critical  study. 

3.  To  write  brief  essays   on   topics   assigned   from   the 

books  read,  showing  the  power  to  read  and  assimi- 
late. 

These  aims  are  legitimate.  The  best  preparation 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  careful  and  intensive  study 
of  the  selection  itself.  Then,  if  possible,  let  him  read 
the  criticisms  and  notes  of  some  one  who  has  made  litera- 
ture a  special  study.  Avoid  overcriticism  and  do  not 
dwell  upon  the  minor  details  too  much  until  the  pupils 


224  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

. 

have  a  view  of  the  selection  as  a  whole.  The  selection 
should  be  read  to  be  enjoyed  rather  than  to  be  picked 
to  pieces  and  destroyed. 

Inquiries  come  also  from  teachers  who  have  but  a 
limited  knowledge  of  literature.  They  do  not  feel  them- 
selves able  to  go  into  the  forces  back  of  literature,  and 
yet  want  specific  help. 

Let  us  take  up  that  great  American  classic,  "  Evange- 
line."  I  feel  that  it  is  almost  unpardonable  for  a  boy 
or  girl  to  leave  school  at  the  end  of  the  common  school 
course  without  having  read  and  become  familiar  with 
this  beautiful  poem.  Its  sadness,  its  sweetness,  its  pu- 
rity, its  simple  story,  its  beautiful  language,  and  its  noble 
sentiment  combine  to  give  it  interest  to  the  pupil  and  to 
make  it  an  uplift  to  better  emotions  and  a  higher  life. 
I  say  I  feel  that  it  is  almost  unpardonable  for  a  pupil 
to  complete  the  common  school  course  without  having 
read  this  poem,  and  still  more  so  for  the  teacher  not  to 
have  studied  it  carefully,  especially  since  it  may  be  had 
post-paid  in  a  very  readable  form  for  a  few  cents. 

Much  of  the  success  of  the  work  comes  from  the 
teacher's  familiarity  with  the  poem.  He  should  read 
it  and  re-read  it  and  study  it  critically  until  he  is  familiar 
with  it  in  all  its  details.  This  careful  reading  will  pro- 
duce enthusiasm  in  the  teacher  if  there  is  any  about  him, 
and  enthusiasm  is  as  contagious  as  the  smallpox,  with- 
out its  harmful  results. 

I  should  recommend  the  following  order  of  study 
for  the  class : — 

i.  Have  the  class  familiar  with  the  main  facts  of 
the  author's  life.  This  will  be  one  of  the  best  incentives 
to  read  other  poems  written  by  him.  They  may  read 
his  biography,  or  the  teacher  may  give  the  main  facts 


LITERATURE  225 

of  his  life  and  have  the  pupils  copy  them  in  their  note 
books. 

2.  Give  a  brief  history  of  Acadia.      This  historic  set- 
ting is  necessary  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  poem. 

3.  Read  the  poem  with  the  class,  giving  particular 
attention  to  the  story.     You  can  gauge  the  pupil's  appre- 
ciation of  the  poem  by  the  way  he  reads.      The  teacher 
may  well  read  passages  often,  giving  natural  expression 
to  the  pathos,  and  teaching  pupils  to  avoid  that  monoto- 
nous sing-song  tone  so  often  heard  in  the  reading  of 
poetry. 

4.  Read  the  poem  a  second  time,  marking  the  beau- 
tiful  passages   and   having  pupils   point   out   why   they 
are  beautiful. 

5.  Composition  work  based  upon  "  Evangeline." 

6.  Have  pupils  commit  many  of  the  beautiful  quo- 
tations. 

This  can  be  made  very  interesting,  and  no  teacher 
should  fail  to  have  the  pupils  store  their  minds  with  the 
beautiful  expressions  —  gems  of  thought  and  sentiment, 
jewels  of  their  kind  —  which  will  bless  and  brighten  and 
uplift  in  after  years. 

7.  Study   the   language   and    form   of   the   poem   as 
critically  as  the  advancement  of  the  class  will  permit.    Re- 
member, however,  that  literature  belongs  to  the  apprecia- 
tive phase  of  English,  and  do  not  disgust  the  pupils  with 
dry  forms.     Let  your  criticism  be  more  toward  pointing 
out  the  good  than  the  bad  qualities. 

When  the  pupils  have  read  the  poem  and  reviewed  it, 
they  should  have  the  story  in  mind  something  as  indi- 
cated by  the  outline  given  below: — 

15 


226  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

OUTUNE  OF  EVANGELINE. 

i1  INTRODUCTION. 

i2  A  description  of  Acadia. 
22  Foreshadowing  of  the  story. 

2l  PART  I.    THE  BANISHMENT. 
i2  Evangeline's  home. 
i3  Grand  Pre. 
23  Evangeline's   family. 

i4  Description  of  Benedict. 
24  Description  of  Evangeline. 
33  The  house  and  surroundings. 
22  Evangeline's  childhood. 
i3  Her  playmates. 
23  The  sports. 

i4  Watching  the  blacksmith. 
24  Coasting. 

34  Searching  the  swallow's  nests. 
32  Evangeline's  youth. 
i3  Suitors. 
23  Gabriel. 
42  The  betrothal. 

i3  Time  —  Indian  summer. 
23  The  evening. 

i4  Scene  outside. 
24  Scene  inside. 

i5  Benedict  singing. 
25  Evangeline  spinning. 
33  The  contract. 

i4  The  parties. 
i5  Benedict. 
25  Basil. 
35  Evangeline. 


LITERATURE  227 

45  Gabriel. 
55  The  notary. 
24  Rumors   of  English   fleet. 
34  Rene  Leblanc's  favorite  story. 
44  The  dowery. 
54  The  singing. 
64  The  parting. 
43  Evangeline's  musings. 
5*  The  day  of  the  proclamation. 

i3  The  feast  of  betrothal  at  Benedict's. 
i4  The  feast. 
24  The  dancing. 
34  The  fiddler. 

23  The  assembling  of  the  men  at  the  church. 
33  The  proclamation. 
i4  Provision  of. 
24  The  effect  of. 

i5  Basil's  Protest. 
25  Father  Felician's  appeal. 
35  The  prayer. 
45  The  resignation. 
43  Loneliness  of  Evangeline  at  home. 
62  Preparation  for  exile. 

i3  Gathering    of    household     goods    by    the 

women  and  children. 

23  The  march  from  the  church  to  the  seashore. 
33  Confusion  on  the  shore. 
43  The  burning  of  Grand   Pre. 
53  Death  of  Benedict. 
63  Evangeline  swoons. 
73  Burial  of  Benedict. 
83  The  embarkment. 
9s  The  departure. 


228  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

31  PART  II.     THE  WANDERING. 

i2  Scattering  of  the  Acadians. 
22  Evangeline's  search  for  Gabriel. 
i3  Trip  down  the  Mississippi. 

i4  Scenes  along  the  shore. 

24  They  leave  the  Mississippi. 

3*  Evangeline's  dream. 

44  The  Passing  of  Gabriel. 
23  Basil's  home. 

i4  The  meeting. 

24  His  prosperity. 

34  The  merry  making. 

44  Evangeline's  sad  musings. 

54  The  departure. 
33  Trip  to  Adayes. 
43  Trip  to  the  Ozark  Mountains. 
53  The  Shawnee  woman. 
63  The  mission. 

i4  The   Black    Robe   chief. 

24  The    stay   at   the   mission. 
73  The    cabin    in    Michigan. 
83  The  search  ended. 
32  Evangeline's  resignation. 
i3  The  pathway  cleared. 
23  Gabriel  not  forgotten. 
33  Evangeline's  hope. 
43  Becomes  a  Sister  of  Mercy. 
42  The  meeting. 

i3  The  pestilence. 
23  The  hospital. 
33  The  recognition. 

43  The  prayer  —  "  Father,  I  thank  thee." 
41  THE  CONCLUSION. 


LITERATURE  229 

When  the  pupils  have  mastered  the  poem  as  a  whole 
and  have  also  the  details  of  the  parts  as  the  outline  above 
indicates,  they  have  plenty  of  material  for  short  composi- 
tions. Few  teachers  will  find  any  trouble  in  securing 
interest  in  this  work.  Have  pupils  read  the  composi- 
tions in  class.  Point  out  the  good  qualities  of  the  differ- 
ent compositions.  Commend  where  you  can.  Do  not 
discourage.  Do  not  point  out  too  many  mistakes  in 
a  paper,  especially  if  the  pupil  is  timid.  Make  your 
severest  criticism  on  those  who  can  do  well  but  have 
neglected  to  do  so. 

In  my  copy  of  Evangeline  the  following  topics  for 
written  work  are  found: — 

1.  Describe  Grand   Pre. 

2.  Write  a  description  of  Benedict's  home. 

3.  Write  a  character  sketch  of 

1 i )  Evangeline. 

(2)  Benedict. 

(3)  Rene  Leblanc. 

4.  Describe  an  Indian  summer  day  in  Acadia  in  1755. 

5.  Tell  the  story  of  the  betrothal. 

6.  Relate   the   notary's   favorite   story. 

7.  Describe  the  betrothal  feast. 

8.  Describe  the  scene  at  the  church  upon  the  reading 

of  the  proclamation. 

9.  How  the  evil  tidings  were  received  by  the  women. 
10.  The  preparation  for  departure. 

n.  The  last  night  in  Acadia. 

12.  The   death  of  Benedict. 

13.  Draw  a  map  showing  Evangeline's  wanderings. 

14.  The  trip  down  the  Mississippi. 

15.  The  journey  to  Opelousas. 

16.  Basil's  Southern  home. 


230  MANAGEMENT  .AND   METHODS 

17.  Basil's  appearance  and  welcome. 

18.  A  feast  at  Basil's. 

19.  The  pursuit  of  Gabriel. 

20.  The  Indian  woman's  story. 

21.  Evangeline  at  the  mission. 

22.  Evangeline's    search    after    leaving   the    mission. 

23.  Evangeline,  a  Sister  of  Mercy. 

24.  The  meeting. 

25.  Two  graves. 

These  twenty-five  topics  are  only  suggestive.  The 
teacher  may  change,  omit,  or  add  to  them  at  pleasure. 
The  length  of  the  written  article  may  vary.  Teach  the 
pupil  to  write  the  story  or  description  so  that  the  listener 
may  get  a  clear  understanding  by  hearing  it  read. 

The  class  is  now  ready  to  go  into  a  critical  study  of 
the  poem.  How  far  they  shall  go  is  to  be  determined  by 
the  teacher  who  knows  the  ability  of  the  class  for  this 
kind  of  work.  The  following  outline  may  indicate  the 
study : — 

i1  WORDS.      Make  a  list  of  the  words  which  are  new  to 

the  pupils. 
i2  Definition. 
22  Derivation. 
32  Use  in  the  sentence. 

21  GRAMMATICAL  CONSTRUCTION.  See  that  pupils  get 
the  sense  from  the  reading.  This  may  require  the 
diagramming  and  analysis  of  some  of  the  sentences. 
Do  not  spoil  the  literature,  however,  by  too  much 
drudgery  of  this  kind. 

31  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

i2  Make  list  and  explain  use  of. 
i3  Similes. 


LITERATURE  231 

23  Metaphors. 
33  Personification. 
43  Metonymy. 
53  Alliteration. 
63  Climax. 
73  Hyperbole. 
83  Allusions. 

i4  Biblical.     These  are  especially  signifi- 
cant.     Have  pupils  to  look  up  the 
following : — 
i5  The  penitent   Peter.      Line   96. 

See  Matt.    26:  75. 
25  Jacob  of  old.     Line  153.      Gen. 

32 :  24. 

35  Line  381.      Gen.  21 :  14. 
45  Line  472.      Isa.  9 :  6. 
55  Line  479.      Luke  23  :  34. 
65  Line  485.      2  Kings  2:11. 
75  Line  507.      Ex.  19. 
85  Line  597.      Acts  28 :  i  -  10. 
95  Line  821.      Gen.  28:12. 
io5  Upharsin.       Line    1044.       Dan. 

5:25. 
ii5  The  prodigal   son.      Line   1063. 

Luke   15:  ii  -  32. 
I25  The  foolish  virgin.     Line  1064. 

Matt.   25  :  i  -  12. 
i35  Line  1095.      Gen.  25  :  12. 
I45  Line    1312.    Mark    14:7. 
I55  Line  1355.      Ex.  12:21-30. 

41  THE:  METER  OF  THE  POEM. 

i2  Have  pupils  scan  the  poem. 
i3  Effect  of  hexameter. 


232  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

2*  Effect  of  dactylic  foot. 

33  Note  any  irregularities. 

43  Show  that  the  form  and  sentiment  are  in 

harmony  in  the  poem. 

These  suggestions  may  help  some  teacher  to  better 
present  this  beautiful  poem  to  his  class.  Let  the  teacher 
bear  in  mind  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  test  a  pupil's 
appreciation  of  literature  by  any  sort  of  examination. 
Literature  is  a  fine  art.  We  cannot  measure  the  influence 
upon  a  young  artist  as  he  stands  before  a  masterpiece 
and  drinks  in  its  soul-inspiring  theme.  But  it  is  none 
the  less  true  that  constant  contact  with  such  things  leaves 
their  impress  upon  the  soul,  and  leads  to  refined  taste  and 
finer  appreciation.  The  pupils  who  have  made  a  study 
of  "  Evangeline  "  will  be  unconsciously  uplifted,  not  all 
to  the  same  degree,  but  all  to  some  degree ;  and  in  days 
to  come  they  will  find  a  growing  faith  in  the  affection 
"  that  hopes,  and  endures,  and  is  patient/'  and  "  in  the 
beauty  and  strength  of  woman's  devotion." 


XXVI.     HISTORY 

subject  of  history  is  of  comparatively  recent  date 
in  the  curriculum  of  the  common  schools,  but  perhaps 
no  subject  is  more  easily  justified  in  the  school  course. 
It  is  true  that  much  of  the  work  is  dull,  and  that  our 
older  texts  attach  too  much  importance  to  dates  and 
battles  and  bloodshed,  and  not  enough  to  the  real  life 
of  the  people  and  the  development  of  the  country.  But 
these  are  faults  of  the  text-book  and  the  teacher,  and  not 
of  the  subject  itself.  Few  subjects  are  more  interesting 
or  more  inspiring  or  richer  in  practical  results  than  his- 
tory when  properly  taught. 

Some  of  the  purposes  of  teaching  history  may  be 
stated : — 

/.  To  teach  the  facts  of  the  past.  It  is  true  this  has 
been  overdone.  Facts,  the  driest  of  facts,  nothing  but 
facts,  have  been  poured  into  the  minds  of  children  by 
teachers  whose  teaching  was  as  dry  as  the  facts  them- 
selves, and  the  children  have  become  disgusted  with  the 
whole  subject.  Dickens'  "  Gradgrind  "  might  revel  in  the 
subject  to  his  heart's  content.  No  one  objects  to  facts 
in  history ;  they  must  form  the  basis  of  all  correct  judg- 
ments of  the  past  and  predictions  of  the 'future;  but  the 
protest  is  against  forcing  these  dry  facts  upon  the  pupil 
before  the  pupil  is  mentally  able  to  appreciate  them.  In 
a  prominent  State  history  used  in  many  of  the  schools 
of  the  State,  the  greater  part  of  the  book  is  taken  up 
with  the  history  of  the  organization  of  the  counties  of 
the  State.  There  are  many  interesting  and  valuable  facts 


234  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

given,  but  let  me  ask  you,  a  man,  a  citizen,  and  an  intel- 
ligent voter,  how  much  do  you  care  to  burden  your  mind 
with  the  exact  boundary  and  the  local  history  of  a  large 
number  of  counties  in  your  State?  Unless  there  is  a 
principle  of  more  than  local  interest  involved,  you  care 
nothing.  Then  why  force  such  stuff  upon  school  boys 
and  school  girls  who  can  understand  less  and  who  care 
less  than  you  do  for  it? 

2.  To  create  a  love  for  country  and  a  determination 
to  give  one's  life,  if  need  be,  for  one's  country.  A  love 
for  country  and  a  patriotism  which  shrinks  from  no 
responsibility  should  be  the  product  of  our  schools,  and 
no  subject  in  the  course  can  touch  or  quicken  and  de- 
velop such  patriotism  so  well  as  history.  By  this  is  not 
meant  mere  gush  and  Jingo  patriotism,  which  soars  and 
soars  and  talks  and  does  nothing ;  but  that  deeper,  calmer 
patriotism  which  recognizes  that  a  life  of  virtue  and  labor 
and  love  and  devotion  to  duty  in  many  of  the  common 
walks  of  life  is  after  all  the  highest  patriotism.  It  should 
instil  a  love  for  many  of  our  uncrowned  heroes  of  com- 
mon life,  who,  working  all  about  us,  honestly  doing  their 
best  and  contentedly,  are  silently  shaping  the  highest 
destiny  of  our  country. 

j.  To  create  high  ideals  of  national  conduct  and  good 
judgment  upon  national  affairs.  This  is  a  most  important 
purpose  in  a  free  country  like  ours,  a  republic  whose 
humblest  citizen  has  a  voice  in  her  affairs,  and  may  be 
called  upon  to  represent  her  in  national  or  international 
councils.  The  intelligent  study  of  history  in  the  com- 
mon schools  should  lay  a  good  foundation  upon  which 
the  future  citizen  may  build. 

4.  To  teach  the  principles  underlying  the  facts  of  his- 
tory. In  advance  history  the  pupils  should  trace  the 


HISTORY  235 

cause  and  effect  of  events.  This  alone  will  make  intel- 
ligent citizenship.  Each  individual  is  what  he  is  from 
three  sources,  (i)  his  inheritance,  (2)  his  own  exertions, 
(3)  his  environment.  Nations  owe  their  life  and  ad- 
vancement to  the  same  forces.  The  problems  suggested 
by  an  attempt  to  trace  cause  and  effect  logically  in  history 
are  worthy  of  the  best  minds  and  give  the  best  of  mental 
discipline.  To  trace  the  life  of  the  great  nations  of  the 
world  and  their  influence  on  the  world's  history,  and  to 
see  how  these  nations  have  been  influenced  in  their  prog- 
ress by  (i)  the  innate  qualities  of  the  race,  (2)  the 
constant  upward  progress  of  each  generation,  (3)  the 
soil,  climate,  mineral  resources,  bodies  of  water,  moun- 
tains, rivers,  etc.,  is  the  highest  form  of  history  teaching. 
These  things  belong  to  a  proper  study  of  history  in  our 
advanced  classes. 

5.  To  give  intellectual  discipline.     No  subject  in  the 
school  course  appeals  more  strongly  than  history  to  all 
the  powers  of  the  mind.    Too  often  we  teach  history  as 
if  the  memory  were  the  only  faculty  of  the  mind  re- 
quired;  but  if  properly  taught,  the  memory,  the  imag- 
ination, the  reason,  the  judgment,  as  well  as  the  will,  are 
cultivated,  giving  as  near  a  symmetrical  mental  devel- 
opment as  any  subject  in  the  school  course. 

6.  The  cultivation  of  the  moral  nature.     Nowhere  is 
the  child's  sense  of  right  and  wrong  more  often  exercised 
than  in  history.     It  deals  with  the  actions  of  men,  and 
these  actions  contains  a  moral  element.    We  may  see  the 
motives  which  inspired  these  actions  as  well  as  the  results 
which  follow  from  them.     We  see  the  consecrated  work 
of  the  good,  the  unselfish  devotion  of  the  patriot,  the 
heroic  fortitude  of  the  martyr,  and  these  noble  actions 
lift  our  lives  to  higher  planes.     On  the  other  hand,  we 


236  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

see  the  meanness  of  the  ignoble,  the  craftiness  and  false- 
hoods of  the  unprincipled,  and  the  baseness  and  corrup- 
tion of  the  degraded,  and  they  are  repulsive  to  us.  Our 
better  nature  instinctively  turns  away  from  the  low,  the 
groveling,  and  the  vicious  to  the  pure,  the  noble,  and 
the  virtuous.  Standing  in  contrast  are  the  noble  and  the 
ignoble,  the  generous  and  the  selfish,  the  honest  and  the 
dishonest;  and  these  contrasts  awaken  in  us  an  admira- 
tion for  the  right,  and  teach  us  to  detest  the  evil.  We 
read  the  deeds  of  heroes  and  patriots,  and  long  to  emulate 
them.  Our  mind  is  stimulated  to  higher  things  and  to 
right  conduct.  Send  the  boy  to  the  inspiring  pages  of 
history,  full  of  life  and  action  and  noble  deeds  and  heroic 
efforts,  for  moral  culture,  rather  than  to  the  abstract 
truths  of  moral  philosophy. 

PRIMARY    HISTORY. 

My  observation  has  been  that  history  is  frequently 
uninteresting  to  pupils,  and  that  teachers  often  dislike 
to  teach  it.  There  are  causes  for  this  indifference. 
Among  other  causes  are  the  following  which  contribute 
to  make  history  distasteful:— 

i.  The  manner  in  which  the  pupils  begin  the  study. 
Frequently  the  first  introduction  to  history  is  a  text-book 
too  difficult  for  the  pupil  to  read,  and  made  up  of  the 
driest  kind  of  facts.  Often  this  book  is  a  dog-eared, 
thumb-worn,  broken-backed  old  book  which  has  been 
used  by  one  or  more  older  pupils  of  the  family.  I  should 
prefer  boys  to  wear  second-hand,  cut-down,  made-over 
clothes  and  girls  to  wear  last  summer's  hats  to  taking  up 
a  new  study  in  an  old  book.  It  is  hard  enough  to  begin 
with  a  new  book,  but  to  begin  a  new  study  with  an  old 
book  is  abominable. 


HISTORY  237 

2.  The  child's  mind  is  crammed  with  facts  and  dates 
and  causes  and  effects  before  its  mind  can  grasp  them  or 
the  significance  of  them.  You  know  how  dry  and  unin- 
teresting the  local  news  items  from  a  country  post-office 
are,  as  they  are  given  in  the  country  newspaper.  To  read 
them  is  laborious  in  the  extreme.  If,  however,  you  oc- 
casionally come  across  an  item  about  one  of  your  friends, 
it  catches  and  holds  your  attention  at  once.  The  item 
may  be  nothing  more  nor  less  than  that  Tom  Jones'  cow 
broke  her  leg  and  had  to  be  killed.  But  Tom  Jones  was 
your  boyhood  friend.  Whatever  concerns  him  concerns 
you,  and  this  one  item  about  your  friend  will  add  interest 
to  a  whole  column  of  kindred  items. 

j.  The  teacher  has  no  definite  object  in  view  in  the 
recitation,  and  does  not  have  the  details  of  the  lesson  in 
mind.  Nothing  destroys  the  interest  of  the  class  quicker 
than  this  hazy,  indefinite  knowledge  of  the  lesson  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should  have  a  clear 
outline  of  the  topics  to  be  presented  in  the  lesson,  and 
know  the  details  of  these  topics  and  their  relation  to 
other  topics  before  presented,  as  well  as  those  to  follow 
in  subsequent  lessons.  The  teacher  is  to  know  the  lesson 
until  he  needs  no  text-book.  When  he  is  full  of  the  sub- 
ject, he  is  ready  with  pertinent  questions,  and  the  recita- 
tion is  full  of  life  and  interest.  When  the  teacher  gets 
near  his  margin  of  knowledge  in  the  history  recitation, 
as  in  other  subjects,  he  begins  to  hesitate  and  stammer, 
and  to  ask  cloudy  questions,  and  to  run  off  at  a  tangent 
from  the  subject.  Pupils  intuitively  know  it,  and  inter- 
est wanes. 

4.  Teachers  do  not  review  often  enough.  Pupils 
should  review  the  facts  of  history  frequently.  Impres- 
sions must  be  made  over  and  over  again  upon  the  minds 


238  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

of  the  pupils  if  they  are  to  remain  permanently.  After 
pupils  have  taken  up  the  text-book  and  have  completed 
an  administration,  they  should  be  able  to  recall  quickly 
and  accurately  the  principal  events  of  that  administration, 
and  to  give  something  definite  about  each  event.  They 
should  have  a  bird's-eye  view  of  each  administration,  and 
be  able  to  give  some  of  the  details  of  each  event.  Each 
of  these  topics  will  form  a  nucleus  around  which  may 
be  grouped  a  number  of  facts  of  history  learned  in  later 
life. 

5  Teachers  too  often  recite  the  history  lesson.  Noth- 
ing is  more  deadening  than  the  constant  talk  of  the 
teacher  in  the  history  class.  He  must,  it  is  true,  be  famil- 
iar with  every  detail  of  the  lesson,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
telling  the  class  about  it,  but  to  guide  and  direct  the  pupils 
in  their  discussions.  His  questions  should  be  to  the 
point,  and  such  as  test  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject as  well  as  to  stimulate  thought  and  to  suggest  further 
study.  It  is  a  wholesale  waste  of  time  and  energy  to  tell 
the  story  of  the  history  lesson  to  the  class  until  their 
minds  are  placed  in  a  receptive  attitude.  The  teacher's 
enthusiasm  must  be  so  great  and  so  genuine  that  it  is 
contagious  with  the  children.  This  enthusiasm  must 
arouse  curiosity  and  a  desire  to  know  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil,  until  they  hunger  for  more  and  are  willing  to  read 
and  listen  to  learn  more.  Then  to  impress  the  work  more 
firmly,  the  pupils  and  not  the  teacher  are  to  recite  it. 

If  the  things  named  above  cause  lack  of  interest  in 
teaching  history,  our  endeavor  should  be  to  avoid  them. 
What,  then,  should  be  the  primary  or  elementary  work 
in  United  States  history? 

i.  The  work  for  the  first  two  years  at  least  should  be 
oral.  If  the  children  begin  the  study  of  history  by  using 


HISTORY  239 

a  text-book,  they  are  apt  to  commit  the  words  of  the  text 
only.  The  historical  fact  escapes  them  in  their  effort 
to  get  the  words.  If  the  work  is  presented  orally,  the 
pupils  will  be  trained  to  remember  the  facts  and  repro- 
duce them  in  their  own  language.  A  boy  does  not  fail 
to  understand  the  story  of  an  accident  on  the  playground 
or  in  town  if  he  listens  to  some  one  relate  it.  He  may 
warp  the  truth  and  swell  the  details,  but  he  has  no  trouble 
in  relating  the  story  itself.  So  it  is  with  oral  work  in 
history.  The  written  form  of  the  language  is  eliminated, 
and  the  child  is  concerned  with  the  facts  only.  When 
the  pupil  again  relates  the  facts,  then  will  come  the  time 
for  pruning. 

2.  The  study  of  history  should  begin  with  biography. 
The  pupils  are  interested  in  individuals  long  before  they 
are  in  events.  Select  twenty-five  great  names  from  Amer- 
ican history,  as  Columbus,  De.Soto,  Ponce  de  Leon,  La- 
Salle,  John  Smith,  Miles  Standish,  Nathaniel  Bacon, 
George  Washington,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Daniel  Boone, 
David  Crockett,  Sam  Houston,  Andrew  Jackson,  John 
C.  Fremont,  Abraham  Lincoln,  Robert  E.  Lee;  U.  S. 
Grant,  Peter  Cooper,  John  Jacob  Astor,  George  Peabody, 
Captain  Eads,  Thomas  A.  Edison,  and  others.  Prepare 
yourself  on  the  lives  of  these  men.  Let  me  emphasize 
the  words,  prepare  yourself.  Here  lies  the  secret.  Make 
a  study  of  these  men.  Get  the  incidents  of  their  lives  at 
your  tongue's  end.  The  material  is  plentiful.  Books  and 
educational  journals  and  magazines  are  all  about  you, 
but  you  must  gather  and  organize  and  master  it.  You 
cannot  use  it  in  dry,  set  statements,  nor  rely  for  material 
upon  what  you  remember  from  carrying  an  advance  class 
over  the  work. 

The  fact  that  many  teachers  in  their  history  work  in 


240  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

the  primary  grades  rely  upon  the  material  they  may  hap- 
pen to  remember  from  having  an  advance  class  in  the 
subject,  accounts  for  the  dulness  of  the  study.  It  is  not 
expected  that  you  be  prince  of  story  tellers.  If  you  were, 
you  would  not  be  apt  to  be  teaching  at  forty  dollars  per 
month ;  but  you  can  grow  along  that  line.  Tell  the  story 
of  these  men's  lives  with  vim  and  enthusiasm.  If  ninety 
per  cent,  of  your  pupils  do  not  listen  and  become  inter- 
ested and  follow  you  carefully,  you  are  to  blame.  If  you 
fail,  try  it  over  again.  Read  up,  study  up,  think  out, 
plan  your  story,  and  at  last  you  will  gain  the  power 
of  interesting  the  pupils.  Your  own  enthusiasm  will 
count  for  much.  Enthusiasm  is  contagious,  and  an 
epidemic  of  enthusiasm  is  good  for  both  teacher  and 
pupils,  especially  in  primary  history. 

Review  and  talk  about  these  from  day  to  day.  Have 
the  pupils  tell  you  about  these  men.  Be  patient,  be  in- 
terested yourself,  and  you  will  be  surprised  how  much  the 
pupils  will  remember  and  how  interested  they  will  be- 
come. Have  them  write  the  stories  for  language  work, 
and  correct,  revise,  prune,  and  make  clear  any  points 
they  have  misunderstood. 

j.  Then  select  twenty-five  great  events  in  United 
States  history,  and  prepare  them  as  thoroughly  as  the 
biographies.  Study  and  plan  so  you  can  present  these 
events  to  the  class  in  the  best  possible  manner.  Have 
the  details  well  in  mind.  Have  them  well  arranged, 
and  relate  these  events  to  your  class  just  as  you  would 
describe  to  them  a  new  game  or  the  story  of  a  school 
picnic.  Be  natural  in  your  manner,  speak  in  conversa- 
tional tones,  and  the  pupils  will  listen  and  remember. 
Have  them  get  other  information  and  then  relate  the 
story  to  you  again.  See  how  their  eyes  sparkle  and  how 


HISTORY  241 

their  tongue  is  loosened  as  they  vie  with  one  another  in 
telling  the  story.  Train  them  to  tell  it  well.  What  one 
forgets  another  will  think  of.  Then  have  them  write  the 
story  in  good  correct  English.  It  will  be  a  good  basis 
for  their  language  work.  You  will  now  find  inaccuracies 
cropping  out.  Correct  these,  and  train  your  class  to 
notice  them. 

The  above  will  lay  the  basis  for  two  years'  oral  work 
in  history  before  the  pupils  take  up  a  text-book.  They 
will  be  familiar  with  several  of  the  famous  men  and 
events — these  will  be  their  old  friends,  and  when  later 
they  meet  them  in  using  the  text-book  these  names  will 
illumine  pages  of  text  which  otherwise  would  be  dry  and 
uninteresting,  as  the  item  concerning  your  friend's  cow 
gave  interest  to  a  page. of  locals. 

The  class  is  then  well  prepared  for  a  primary  text- 
book in  history.  Nothing  is  a  better  index  of  improve- 
ment in  our  schools  than  to  note  the  progress  made  in 
our  text-books  in  the  last  two  decades.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  good  text-books  on  the  market  now  in  primary  his- 
tory suitable  for  pupils  beginning  the  use  of  a  book.  Make 
your  choice  carefully,  and  let  the  pupils  each  be  supplied 
with  a  book.  Teach  them  to  study  subjects  rather  than 
pages,  and  to  arrange  the  headings  or  topics  under  the 
subjects.  These  topics  are  the  framework  which  should  be 
clothed  in  words.  The  first  preparation  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  is  to  master  the  text.  Get  the  author's  outline  in 
mind,  even  to  the  details.  This  is  no  great  task  if  an  out- 
line is  made,  and  it  is  essential  to  the  best  teaching.  Re- 
member it  is  not  the  teacher's  place  to  recite  the  history 
lesson,  but  the  pupil's.  The  teacher  who  is  a  skilful  list- 
ener is  a  great  inspiration  to  a  history  class.  Careful  at- 
tention to  the  child's  story  and  an  appreciation  on  the  part 

16 


242  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

of  the  teacher  will  get  interest  and  best  effort  from  the 
pupil.  By  this  means  the  pupil  is  led  to  think  the  story 
as  a  connected  whole,  and  will  grow  in  power  of  both 
thought  and  expression. 

Before  leaving  a  subject,  the  pupil  should  have  in 
mind  a  definite  outline,  more  or  less  complete,  according 
to  his  age  and  mental  ability,  of  the  subject  as  the  author 
treats  it.  These  topics  should  be  kept  in  mind,  forming  a 
nucleus  around  which  he  may  ever  after  group  other  facts 
and  information  upon  the  same  topic.  By  such  associ- 
ations alone  can  we  make  permanent  mental  accumula- 
tions of.  historic  facts. 

ADVANCED  HISTORY. 

If  pupils  have  been  properly  introduced  to  history, 
they  should  love  it,  and  now  they  are  ready  for  a  deeper 
study  of  the  subject  and  for  a  more  advanced  text-book. 
Such  a  text  may  deal  more  with  cause  and  effect,  but 
even  here  there  is  danger  of  dry  facts  and  generalizations 
which  are  above  the  mental  grasp  of  the  pupils.  There 
has  been  much  theorizing  of  late  upon  methods  of  teach- 
ing history,  and  no  doubt  much  good  has  resulted  from 
it.  Our  histories  have  been  too  long  a  record  of  warfare 
and  battle,  and  too  little  of  the  real  life  of  the  people.  The 
blood-and-thunder  side  has  overshadowed  all  else.  We 
are  now  swinging  away  from  that  extreme,  and  it  may  be 
a  decade  or  two  will  carry  us  to  the  other  extreme.  Many 
of  our  writers  are  dry  and  prosy  in  their  descriptions  of 
common  life,  and  the  boy  passes  through  a  stage  of  de- 
velopment when  the  blood-and-thunder  side  appeals  to 
him  and  nothing  else  will.  The  theory  now  advocated  by 
prominent  educators,  a  number  of  them  from  normal 
schools,  that  the  child's  history  work  should  trace  the 


HISTORY  243 

growth  of  civilization,  has  much  truth  in  it,  but  it  may 
be  easily  overdone  unless  the  children  are  in  skilled 
hands  and  under  almost  ideal  conditions.  There  is  lit- 
tle more  reason  for  beginning  the  history  with  primi- 
tive life  than  that  the  child  should  actually  live  as  the 
primitive  man  did.  The  child's  heritage  of  the  past 
makes  it  possible  to  begin  life  with  the  home  sur- 
roundings and  comforts  of  civilization,  and  it  is 
as  hard  for  the  child  to  imagine  the  primitive  life  as 
the  more  complex  life  of  the  present.  Recently  I  heard 
a  learned  man  advocating  that  we  should  begin  the  study 
of  history  in  our  public  schools  with  the  history  of  Eng- 
land instead  of  the  United  States.  It  was  impossible, 
said  he,  to  understand  the  history  of  our  own  country 
until  we  knew  the  history  of  the  mother  country.  Even 
under  the  charm  of  his  eloquence,  one  could  not  help  but 
ask  in  his  own  mind,  if  it  were  possible  to  understand  the 
history  of  the  mother  country  without  knowing  the  his- 
tory of  the  grand-mother  country,  etc.  Then  the  story 
of  a  small  boy  who  was  a  great  doubter  came  to  mind. 
His  teacher  showed  him  the  letter  A,  and  asked  him  what 
it  was.  The  boy  said  promptly,  "  I  don't  know."  The 
teacher  told  him  it  was  A.  The  boy  asked  at  once, 
"  How  do  you  know  ?  "  The  teacher  said  that  when  he 
was  a  boy  his  teacher  told  him  it  was  A.  "  Well,  how  did 
he  know?"  asked  the  boy.  The  teacher  then  explained 
that  his  teacher's  teacher  said  it  was  A.  The  boy  asked 
again,  "  How  did  he  know?  "  and  so  on  until  it  had  been 
traced  through  a  number  of  generations.  At  last  to  sat- 
isfy the  boy,  the  teacher  told  him  the  man  who  first  made 
it  said  it  was  A.  "  Well''  replied  the  boy,  "  how  do  you 
know  but  what  he  lied  about  it?  "  Some  of  us  are  much 
like  the  boy  when  it  comes  to  history  study. 


244  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

Master  Some  Good  Text. —  Extremes  are  to  be 
avoided,  but  after  the  text  is  selected,  the  thing 
for  the  pupil  to  do  is  to  master  it.  There  has 
been  a  reaction  of  late  against  text-book  work.  Many 
teachers,  loud  in  their  clamor  to  throw  the  texts  out 
of  the  window,  would  know  and  understand  far  more 
history  had  they  really  studied  carefully  and  mastered 
one  good  text.  Our  authors  are  liable  to  gross  errors, 
but  mastering  a  text  does  not  mean  swallowing  every- 
thing the  author  says,  but  it  does  mean  knowing  what  he 
says.  After  the  class  knows  accurately  what  the  author 
says,  and  understands  the  author's  language,  then  comes 
the  time  for  further  investigation  and  agreement  with  or 
dissent  from  his  views.  This  does  not  mean  lifeless  cram 
of  text-book,  but  thoughtful  mastery  of  the  author's 
thought  and  language.  Enliven  it  with  questions  and 
discussions,  but  see  that,  above  all,  the  pupils  know 
what  he  says,  and  then  translate,  as  it  were,  into  their 
own  language  and  experience.  Then  and  then  only  do 
they  understand  it. 

The  pupil  too  often  studies  history  as  if  it  were  some- 
thing away  off,  and  had  no  connection  with  anything 
about  him.  It  should  be  in  fact  "  his-story,"  the  author's 
story  of  what  has  happened  and  why  it  happened  as  it 
did.  When  the  pupils  can  call  it  up  face  to  face,  and 
read  it  as  a  narrative  of  what  has  happened,  they  will 
soon  be  able  to  get  an  outline  view  of  history  from  the 
author's  standpoint,  and  from  this  view  and  from  the 
topics  here  learned  they  can  ever  after  add  to,  expand, 
and  fasten  new  knowledge.  It  is  a  fundamental  law  of 
mind  that  we  interpret  all  new  knowledge  by  the  old,  and 
these  topics  are  the  hooks  upon  which  the  new  knowledge 
may  be  readily  assorted  and  hung. 


HISTORY  245 

Read  Other  Texts. —  It  is  not  meant  to  imply  that 
pupils  should  study  one  text-book  on  history  and  only 
one.  Improved  methods  may  be  good.  Many  devices 
are  excellent  for  getting  interest  in  the  history  class, 
but  nothing  will  take  the  place  of  a  thorough  prepa- 
ration of  the  lesson  from  day  to  day,  and  a  constant 
review  and  fastening  of  the  facts  in  mind  according 
to  some  systematic  plan  —  a  plan  which  will  give  the 
pupil  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  subject  with  the  proper 
co-ordination  of  topics.  The  teacher  who  fails  to  give 
his  history  class  that  view,  fails  in  teaching  history, 
however  much  he  may  follow  new  and  improved  methods. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  early  how  to  use  other  au- 
thors intelligently.  Half  our  pupils  and  many  of  our 
teachers  do  not  know  the  value  of  an  index.  Some  weeks 
ago  a  teacher  of  prominence,  after  looking  in  vain  for 
a  topic  in  a  work  on  civics,  asked  me  if  I  remembered 
where  the  author  treated  of  the  point  in  question.  In  two 
minutes  I  had  turned  to  the  index  and  then  to  the  page. 
Pointing  to  the  topic,  I  gave  him  the  book  as  he  ex- 
claimed, "  I  never  thought  about  going  to  the  index/' 
So  it  often  is  with  our  pupils.  Teach  them  to  make 
use  of  the  index  and  to  find  the  topic  they  are  looking 
up.  If  the  topic  is  not  given  exactly  as  they  have  found 
it  stated  in  their  own  text,  let  them  learn  to  use  the  good 
common  sense  method,  and  look  under  another  title  for 
what  is  practically  the  same  subject.  It  is  deplorable  that 
so  many  pupils  and  teachers  are  lost  and  bewildered  when 
in  a  library.  No  study  is  better  than  history  to  train 
pupils  to  an  intelligent  use  of  books  other  than  their 
texts.  They  must  be  taught  to  get  the  information  they 
want  with  the  least  possible  outlay  of  time  and  effort, 


246  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

and  to  be  able  to  find  what  they  want  when  they  have  the 
books  before  them. 

The  Cross-section  View  of  History.—  There  is  what 
may  be  termed  the  cross-section  or  time  view  of  his- 
tory and  the  longitudinal  or  subject  view.  The  first 
is  usually  the  one  used  in  our  school  histories,  and 
for  an  introductory  view  it  is  perhaps  the  better.  The 
story  of  our  country  is  presented  as  it  happened,  as 
a  narration  in  chronological  order.  A  colony,  as  Vir- 
ginia, is  taken  up  and  its  history  traced,  naming  the  events 
largely  in  the  order  in  which  they  occurred.  In  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  we  study  the  events  of  1776,  1777,  1778, 
etc.,  each  year  in  succession  to  the  close  of  the  war. 
When  we  come  to  the  National  Period,  we  study  the 
events  of  Washington's  administrations,  then  John 
Adams's,  then  Jefferson's,  and  so  on.  The  principal  asso- 
ciation here  is  a  time  or  administration  association.  The 
events  are  grouped  by  years  or  administrations.  Some 
teachers  have  severely  criticized  such  grouping,  but  it 
is  not  wholly  bad.  No  year's  study  of  history  ever  did 
me  more  good  than  one  when  my  class  were  required  to 
group  the  events  by  administrations,  and  to  be  able  to 
name  at  any  time  the  events  during  each  administration. 
It  may  be  that  time  is  wasted  on  learning  dates.  Some 
teachers  go  to  extremes  on  this  line,  but  there  is  another 
extreme  no  less  pernicious,  and  that  is  in  knowing  some- 
thing of  an  event  and  being  utterly  unable  to  locate  it 
in  time  or  place.  A  high  school  pupil  completing  United 
States  history  could  tell  me  reasonably  well  the  story  of 
the  Whisky  Rebellion,  but  did  not  remember  when  it 
occurred,  whether  it  was  Washington  or  Cleveland  who 
called  out  the  militia,  or  whether  he  sent  them  to  Florida, 
Pennsylvania,  or  California.  Now  a  proper  understand- 


HISTORY  247 

ing  of  the  Whisky  Rebellion  would  include  the  following 
points :  — 

1.  When  it  occurred. 

2.  Where  it  occurred. 

3.  Why  it  occurred. 

4.  What  was  the  constitutional  authority  for  the  reve- 
nue law  ? 

5.  What  authority  had  the  President  to  call  out  the 
troops  ? 

6.  What  were  the  results  at  the  time  ? 

7.  What  were  the  later  results  of  Washington's  prece- 
dent? 

The  event  which  is  remembered  without  connection 
in  time  or  place  is  apt  to  be  of  little  value  from  the 
standpoint  of  history. 

The  Longitudinal  Vie^v  of  History. —  This  is  in 
the  later  study  of  history  the  proper  method  of  study. 
In  this  you  do  not  study  by  cross  section,  but  by  sub- 
ject. The  time  sequence  is  not  limited  to  arbitrary 
periods,  as  by  administrations,  but  a  subject  is  traced 
through  our  history.  Cause  and  effect  are  made  more 
prominent  than  time.  To  illustrate  by  example,  suppose 
we  are  investigating  the  subject  of  Slavery  in  the  United 
States,  a  subject  rich  in  its  results  as  a  history  study  and 
appropriate  for  the  advanced  high  school  class.  The  out- 
line should  stand  in  the  teacher's  mind  something  as  fol- 
lows; then  in  addition  to  having  reference  works  and  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  subject  himself,  the  teacher 
should  have  an  earnest  desire  to  give  the  class  a  clear 
view  of  the  subject  with  all  its  ramifications  into  our 
social,  economical,  and  political  life. 
I1  Slavery. 

I2  Origin  of  slavery  in  the  world. 


248  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

22  Good  and  bad  influences  of  slavery.    , 
32  Racial  slavery  and  slavery  of  the  weak. 
42  Why  the  negro  made  a  good  slave. 
52  Slavery  in  Greece. 
i3  Kind. 

23  Six  bases  of  Grecian  slavery. 
33  Number  of  slaves. 
43  Treatment  of  the  slaves. 
62  Slavery  in  Rome. 
i8    Kind 

23  Number  of  slaves. 
33  Treatment  of  the  slaves. 
43  Four  ways  by  which  the  slaves  could  become 

free. 

72  Slavery  in  other  countries  of  Europe. 
82  Slavery  in  the  United  States. 
i3  Introduced  in  1619. 
i4  How  introduced. 

24  Spread  to  every  English  colony  —  took 
firm   root  in   the   South   and   died 
out  in  the  North  because  of  — 
i5  Climate. 
25  Industries. 

35  Character  of  early  colonists. 
45  Invention  of  the  cotton  gin,  spin- 
ning jenny,  and  power  loom. 
34  Emancipation  in  the  Northern  colonies. 
i5  When. 

25  How  —  name  for  each  colony. 
23  The  Negro  Plot,   1741. 
33  Ordinance  of  1787. 

i4  When  first  proposed. 


HISTORY  249 

24  Origin  of  this  public  domain  and  its 
influence  on  making  a  Union  pos- 
sible. 

34  By  whom  prepared. 
44  Authority. 
5*  Provisions. 

43  Slavery  compromises  of  the  Constitution. 
i4  The  Connecticut  Compromise. 
i5  By  whom  introduced. 
25  Give  history  of  it. 
24  The   Apportionment   Compromise. 
i5  Precedent  for. 
25  Provisions. 

i6  For  representation  and  di- 
rect taxes. 

26  Importation  of  slaves. 
36  Duty  on  imported  slaves. 
35  To     whom     advantageous     and 

why? 

53  The  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1793. 
i4  Provisions  and  penalties. 
24  How  evaded. 

34  Northern  merchants  did  as  much  or 
more  to  sustain  slavery  as  Southern 
planters. 

63  Invention  of  the  cotton  gin,  1793. 
i4  The  inventor. 
2*  Why  needed. 
34  Results. 

i5  On  the  production  of  cotton. 
25  On  the  price  of  land. 
35  On  the  settlement  of  the  Gulf 
States. 


250  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

45  On  the  demand  for  Negro  slaves. 
55-  On  building  factories. 
65  On  cotton  as  an  article  of  cloth- 
ing. 

75  On  commerce. 
85  On  the  hope  for  gradual  eman- 
cipation. 

73  The  exportation  of  slaves  forbidden,  1794. 
83  The  foreign  slave  trade  restricted,  1800. 
93  The  importation  of  slaves  forbidden,  1807. 
io3  Additional  measures  for  restricting  impor- 
tation of  slaves. 
ii3  Slave  trade  made  piracy  and  punishable  by 

death,  1817. 

I23  The  Missouri  Compromise,  1820-21. 
i4  The  question  at  issue. 
24  Tallmadge's  amendment 
34  Clay's  opposition. 
4*  Missouri  and  Maine  united  in  one  bill 

in  the  Senate. 

54  The     Missouri     Compromise     proper 
introduced    by    Senator    Jesse    B. 
Thomas    of    Illinois. 
64  The  objectionable  clause  in  Missouri's 

constitution. 
74  Recommendations   of   the   Committee 

of  Thirty. 

84  Missouri's  pledge. 
94  Results. 
io4  The  views  of  leading  statesmen  on  the 

compromise. 

I33  Publication  of  the  Liberator,  1831. 
I43  New  England  Anti-Slavery   Society,   1832. 


UNIVERSil 

HISTORY  2oi 

^S::3s=s=^: 

I58  American  Abolition  Society. 
i63  Annexation  of  Texas  and  the  Mexican  War, 
1845- 

i4  History  of  Texas  previous  to  annexa- 
tion. 
24  Calhoun's    influence    as    Secretary    of 

State  on  annexation. 
34  Opinions  of  Jackson,  Van  Buren,  and 

Clay  on  annexation. 

44  Calhoun's  revenge  on  Van  Buren  and 
the  nomination  of  Polk  the  expan- 
sionist. 
54  Cause  of  the  war. 

i5  Desire  for  new  territory,  espe- 
cially slave  territory. 
25  Texas   colonized   by   Americans 
who  were  loyal  to  the  United 
States  and  desired  annexation. 
35  Disputed  boundary  of  Texas. 
I73  The  Wilmot  Proviso,  1846. 
i4  David  Wilmot. 
24  Occasion   for  the  proviso. 
34  Provisions. 
44  Results. 

i83  The  Free  Soil  Party,  1845. 
i4  The  platform. 
24  Candidates. 
34  Results. 
ig3  Compromise  of   1850. 

i4  Cause  of  the  agitation. 
i5  Calhoun's  circular. 
25  Virginia's  resolution. 
35  Free  State  recommendation. 


252  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

45  California's  Free  State  Petition. 
24  President  Taylor's  stand. 
34  Clay's    Omnibus    Bill. 
i5  How  named. 
25  The  five  provisions. 
35  Clay's  great  speech. 
45  Webster's     seventh     of     March 

speech. 
55  Calhoun's   last   speech   and   his 

four  demands  of  the  South. 
65  Foote's  resolution. 
i6  Debate  upon  it. 
2°  The  Committee  of  Thirteen 
and  their  seven  recom- 
mendations. 

75  The  bills  must  be  passed  sepa- 
rately or  not  at  all,  and  why? 
85  The  Fugitive  Slave  Law. 
i6  Its  provisions. 
26  Why  objectionable. 
36  Results. 

i7  Personal  liberty  laws. 
Give   the   provisions 
of  these  laws  in  the 
different  States. 
27  Daring  rescues. 
37  Indignation      of     the 

North. 

203  Publication  of  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  1852. 
i4  Biography  of  Mrs.  Stowe. 
24  Character  of  the  book. 
34  Enormous  sale. 
44  Influence  on  slavery. 


HISTORY  253 

2i3  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  1854. 
i4  Authors. 

24  Reasons  for  introducing. 
34  Four  results. 

223  Republican  Party  organized,   1856. 
i4  Why. 

24  Source  of  influence  and  leaders. 
34  Platform  provisions. 
44  Candidates. 

233  Dred  Scott  Decision,  1857. 
i4  Who  was  Scott? 
24  Cause  of  complaint  and  the  question  at 

issue. 
34  The  decision. 

i5  Majority  and  minority  reports. 
25  Influence  on  the   different  sec- 
tions. 

35  Character  of  the  judges. 
45  This  decision  in  time  of  war  be- 
came the  key  to  emancipation. 
243  Helper's  "  Impending  Crisis." 
i4  The  author. 

24  His  principles  and  method  of  treat- 
ment. 

34  Its  influence  in  the  campaign  of  1860. 
25s  Lincoln-Douglas  debates,  1858. 
i4  Party  positions. 
24  The  challenge  and  arrangements  for 

debates. 

34  Contrast  between  Douglas  and  Lin- 
coln. 

44  Douglas's  questions  and  Lincoln's  re- 
plies. 


254  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

54  Lincoln's  questions  and  Douglas's  re- 
plies. 

64  Lincoln's  clinching  argument  against 
police   control   of  slavery. 

74  Results,  local  and  national. 
263  John  Brown's  raid. 

i4  Brown's  previous  career. 

24  His  plans,  how  carried  out. 

34  Results,  personal  and  national. 
273  Campaign  of  1860. 

i4  Split  of  the  Democratic  Party. 

24  Principles  of  the  four  different  plat- 
forms. 

34  Election  of  Lincoln  and  results. 
283  Beginnings  of  secession. 

i4  Order  of  secession. 

24  How  other  States  were  influenced  to 
follow  South  Carolina. 

34  Methods  of  conventions. 

44  Floyd  as  Secretary  of  War. 

54  Resignation  of  United  States  senators. 

64  Possession  of  forts  and  arsenals. 

74  Buchanan's  policy. 

84  Dix's  famous  order  and  firm  stand. 

94  Thousands  of  people  on  each  side  were 

reluctantly   forced  to  take  sides. 
2Q3  Crittenden's  compromise. 

i4  Provisions. 

24  Two    other    compromises,    provisions 

and  history. 
303  Inauguration  of  Lincoln. 

i4  His  quiet  but  firm  stand. 

24  Summarize   his    inaugural    address. 


HISTORY  255 

3 13  Civil  War  measures. 

i4  Final  effort  for  peaceable  disunion. 

24  Military   leagues. 

34  West  Virginia. 

44  Lincoln's  diplomacy  is  shown   in  his 

first  call  for  soldiers. 
54  Contraband  of  war  and  confiscation  of 

property. 

64  Lincoln's   attitude   toward   emancipa- 
tion as  shown  — 
i5  In  his  Greeley  letters. 
25  In    reversing    Freemont's    deci- 
sion. 

74  Attitude  of  Congress  toward  slavery. 
84  Emancipation     Proclamation.        Note 
carefully  what  it  did  and  what  it 
did  not  do. 

94  The  second  inauguration. 
io4  The  Thirteenth  Amendment,  1865. 
ii4  The  Fourteenth  Amendment,  1868. 
I24  The  Fifteenth  Amendment,  1870. 

The  outline  opens  up,  should  we  want  to  carry  it 
farther,  the  results  of  the  war  —  the  cost  in  money,  the 
cost  in  men.  Scarcely  a  family  North  or  South  but  lost 
of  its  best  blood.  The  enormous  cost  of  the  war  gave 
rise  to  our  banking  system,  and  laid  the  foundation  for 
many  of  our  gigantic  business  enterprises  of  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century.  Carpet-bag  rule  in  the  South,  the 
greatest  curse  of  all,  followed,  in  which  millions  of  funds 
were  squandered  and  nothing  to  show  for  it.  The  rapid 
elevation  of  the  negro  from  slavery  to  citizenship  without 
any  educational  qualifications  shows  to  what  extremes 
wise  men  may  go  in  times  of  passion  and  excitement. 


256  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

The  causes  of  the  Civil  War,  of  which  slavery  was  one 
rooted  deep  in  the  past,  give  us  many  of  the  gravest  prob- 
lems of  the  present.  The  advance  class  should  catch  the 
spirit  of  subject  study  in  history,  for  any  subject  investi- 
gated soon  discovers  new  and  deeper  relations  to  the 
student. 

Outlines  in  the  Study  of  History. —  In  the  preced- 
ing pages  outlines  have  been  spoken  of.  It  is  very 
important  for  the  class  to  get  a  clear  outline  of  the 
subject,  and  to  hold  the  main  points  of  the  outline  in 
mind.  It  is  well,  also,  for  the  pupil  to  be  able  to  stand 
and  tell  what  he  knows  of  a  topic  in  clear,  definite  lan- 
guage. It  cultivates  self-possession  and  the  power  to 
think  on  one's  feet.  He  should  do  this  without  the  aid 
of  leading  questions,  and  it  should  be  told  in  his  own 
language.  If  he  quotes  the  language  of  the  book,  the 
teacher  must  make  sure  that  he  understands  it  thoroughly. 
Just  now  comes  to  mind  a  quotation  from  Ridpath's 
School  History,  learned  years  ago.  However,  our  teacher 
talked  to  us  about  its  meaning  until  we  understood  it. 
Then  the  language  was  worthy  to  be  remembered. 
Speaking  of  the  results  of  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
he  said :  "  By  this  conflict  it  was  decided  that  the  decay- 
ing institutions  of  the  Middle  Ages  should  not  prevail 
in  America,  and  that  the  powerful  language,  just  laws, 
and  priceless  liberties  of  the  English  race  should  be 
planted  forever  in  the  vast  domain  of  the  New  World." 
There  are  many  ready-made  history  outlines  on  the 
market.  Many  of  them  are  good,  and  are  useful  to  the 
teacher  as  a  help  or  guide,  but  it  is  a  great  mistake  to 
adopt  one  outright.  In  this,  as  in  everything  else,,  the 
teacher  may  adapt  but  not  adopt.  The  outline  given 
above  on  slavery  in  the  United  States  suits  me  with  a 


HISTORY  257 

good  strong  class  of  high  school  students,  because  I 
worked  it  out  and  planned  it  and  have  used  it  twice  with 
such  a  class.  To  use  it  again  I  should  recast  it  and  re- 
vise it.  If  the  class  is  not  strong  many  points  would  be 
omitted.  If  our  reference  library  is  not  adequate  that, 
too,  would  modify  it.  It  may  be  helpful  to  you  as  a  stu- 
dent, but  to  be  helpful  to  you  as  a  teacher  you  must  work 
it  over  and  plan  it  to  suit  you.  You  must  assimilate  it, 
make  it  a  part  of  yourself,  and  then  use  it.  You  can- 
not use  it  to  any  advantage  ready-made. 

Relation  of  History  and  Geography.- —  Let  me  make 
a  plea  for  a  combination  of  history  and  geography 
in  a  measure  in  advanced  classes.  There  is  a  close 
inter-relation  in  these  subjects  often  overlooked  but 
of  great  importance.  Avoiding  the  practice  of  push- 
ing the  philosophy  of  history  down  before  pupils  are  ma- 
ture enough  to  grasp  it,  there  are  still  some  broad  prin- 
ciples back  of  history  which,  if  grasped  and  under- 
stood by  the  teacher,  will  give  coloring  or  perhaps  it 
might  be  said  character,  to  all  his  teaching  of  history. 
Some  of  these  are : — 

1.  That  history  is  a  continuity,  a  continuous  stream, 
the  continually  growing  life  of  man. 

2.  That  this  continually  enlarging  life  of  man  is  con- 
served or  stored  up  for  the  use  of  future  generations  in 
man's  institutional  life  —  the  family,  the  church,  the  state, 
the   school,   the   various   business   enterprises. 

3.  That  there  is  a  close  relation  between  history  and 
geography,  and  that  all  good  teaching  makes  constant 
reference  to  and  use  of  geography. 

This  last  principle  is  especially  important. 
What  agencies  determine  the  course  of  history  ?    Why 
does   history   in   one   country   mature   rapidly,    while   in 

17 


258  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

another  it  moves  very  slowly?  What  causes  states  and 
empires  and  cities  to  rise,  flourish,  decay,  and  fall?  The 
stream  of  history  and  civilization  is  like  a  river,  it  fol- 
lows the  path  of  least  resistance.  High  up  in  Minnesota 
the  Father  of  Waters  has  its  source,  and  from  a  trifling 
rivulet  easily  stepped  across  it  winds  its  tortuous  course 
three  thousand  miles  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  current 
constantly  augmented  by  tributaries  from  the  east  and 
the  west,  grows  stronger  and  stronger  and  more  and  more 
difficult  to  turn  into  new  channels.  Here  it  leaps  as  a 
water-fall,  there  it  whirls  in  an  eddy,  and  yonder  it 
glides  in  a  glossy  sheet.  The  winding  of  the  stream, 
the  whirlpools,  the  eddies,  and  the  smooth-gliding,  glossy 
sheet  are  caused  by  the  rocks  and  soil,  the  bluffs  and 
slopes,  and  obstructions  along  its  banks  and  bed.  Its 
character  is  determined  by  its  physical  environment. 

The  stream  of  history  had  its  rise  back  in  the  warm 
and  fertile  valleys  of  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates.  It 
moved  around  the  Mediterranean,  shifted  across  north- 
western Europe,  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  is  marching 
rapidly  toward  the  Pacific  slope.  What  causes  the 
change  in  the  course  of  this  river  of  human  life  and  ac- 
tivity? Why  did  it  start  westward  instead  of  eastward? 
Why  did  it  not  move  directly  north  or  south?  The 
answer  here  is  practically  the  same  as  with  the  Missis- 
sippi —  physical  environment. 

1.  Mountains,  rivers,  deserts,  slopes,  plants,  animals, 
climate,  mineral  products,  —  all  these  and  many  others 
have  influenced  man,  determining  where  he  should  settle, 
what   his   occupation    should   be,   in   what   direction   he 
should  migrate  when  he  sought  a  new  home,  and  other 
vital  questions  of  his  life. 

2.  The'  early   homes   of  civilization   were   along  the 


HISTORY  259 

Nile  and  the  Euphrates.  The  soil  was  immensely  fertile. 
The  labor  of  one  man  is  estimated  to  have  fed  a  hun- 
dred persons.  Here  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  fruits  grew  in  abundance  and  wheat  and 
barley  were  native  products.  Man  found  it  easy  to 
get  a  start  in  developing  material,  military,  and  artistic 
surroundings. 

3.  As  these  two  centers  of  civilization  became  densely 
populated  from  such  favored  surroundings,  civilization 
moved  westward  because  the  Mediterranean  invited  while 
the  Persian  and  Arabian  deserts  and  the  Himalayan  crags 
frowned  upon  any  effort  to  move  eastward.  Thus  Phoe- 
nicia, Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  powerful  Rome  became 
each  in  turn  the  center  of  human  activity,  and  for  two 
thousand  years  the  hub  of  civilization  was  on  the  borders 
of  the  Mediterranean. 

4.  For  over  a  thousand  years  after  the  fall  of  Rome 
the  center  of  activity  was  in  the  rich,  fertile  valleys  of 
Western  Europe.  Then  Columbus  added  a  New  and 
empty  world  to  the  Old.  "America  is  another  word  for 
opportunity,"  says  Emerson,  and  it  was  not  long  after 
its  discovery,  measured  in  the  age  of  nations,  until  with 
new  and  improved  methods  of  navigation  the  seat  of 
civilization  was  transferred  to  America. 

If  we  can  lead  pupils  to  see  these  forces  back  of  his- 
tory, it  means  much  to  them.  Such  principles  are  preg- 
nant with  thought,  and  concrete  examples  are  readily 
found.  Mountains  are  barriers  and  often  separate  dis- 
tinct kinds  of  civilization.  Notice  how  the  Himalayas 
divide  the  civilization  of  China  from  that  of  India.  Note 
the  fruitless  attempts  to  hold  France  and  Spain  as  one 
nation  because  the  Pyrenees  forbid.  Russia  has,  on  the 
other  hand,  spread  all  over  Northern  Europe  and  Asia 


260  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

because  of  a  continuous  broad,  fertile  plain.  The  wisest 
statesmen  of  Washington's  time  doubted  the  possibility 
of  our  country  ever  reaching  successfully  beyond  the 
Appalachian  Mountains.  The  railroad,  the  steamboat, 
the  telegraph,  and  the  telephone  have  made  it  possible 
to  unite  our  great  and  broad  country,  varying  as  it 
does  in  soil,  climate,  and  resources ;  and  even  with  these 
modern  methods  of  annihilating  space  we  must  not  over- 
look the  fact  that  ours  was  practically  an  empty  land  to 
be  filled  with  a  people  of  kindred  tastes.  Had  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  been  the  seat  of  a  civilization  with  different 
ideas  and  tastes  incompatible  with  ours,  the  results  might 
have  been  different. 

We  thus  see  that  the  surface  of  a  country  affects  its 
civilization,  and  the  soil  affects  it  almost  as  much.  Where 
the  soil  is  rich,  the  population  is  apt  to  be  dense,  and 
the  leading  occupation  agriculture.  If  the  soil  is  poor, 
unless  there  be  mineral  resources,  the  population  will  be 
sparse  and  often  nomadic.  When  we  consider  the  rich- 
ness and  vastness  and  diversity  of  our  domain,  the  future 
of  our  country  is  bright.  What  we  need  is  skill  and 
will  to  develop  it.  We  may  also  predict  with  much  as- 
surance where  the  denser  population  will  be.  Those 
who  are  familiar  with  the  geography  of  the  country, 
even  after  making  due  allowance  for  rich  undeveloped 
mineral  resources  of  the  highland  section,  must  see  that 
the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Gulf  region  must  in  time 
become  the  home  of  a  large  portion  of  the  population 
of  the  nation. 

The  rich  river  valleys  of  the  earth,  having  been  the 
seat  of  dense  populations,  have  been  also  the  center  of 
many  great  military  movements.  To  secure  permanently 
the  mouth  of  a  river  controls  the  commerce  of  the  river. 


HISTORY  261 

Three  times  has  the  possession  of  the  Mississippi  been  a 
question  of  national  or  international  importance.  The 
bone  of  contention,  so  far  as  the  colonies  were  concerned, 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War  was  the  possession  of 
the  Mississippi  or  its  tributaries.  Read  the  record  of 
events  leading  to  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  Upon  our 
part  it  was  the  demand  of  the  people  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  for  an  outlet  to  the  Gulf.  In  the  Civil  War  the 
opening  of  the  Mississippi  was  one  of  the  four  definite 
plans  of  the  Union  forces. 

From  the  consideration  of  the  influence  of  the  soil 
upon  history  and  civilization  it  is  but  a  step  to  a  con- 
sideration of  mineral  products  beneath  the  surface. 
Gold,  silver,  iron,  lead,  coal,  and  gas  have  had  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  course  of  history.  The  last  two 
centuries  have  increased  the  influence  of  these  greatly, 
perhaps  more  than  all  other  centuries  combined.  The 
discovery  of  coal  and  iron  in  the  northwest  of  England 
about  a  century  ago  has  shifted  the  population  to  that 
portion  of  the  island.  This  has  made  England  one  of 
the  greatest  manufacturing  countries  of  the  world,  and 
in  numerous  ways  has  contributed  to  the  social,  political, 
religious,  and  industrial  life  of  the  people.  The  rich 
gold  and  diamond  mines  of  South  Africa  were  the  cause 
of  the  Boer  War.  Spain's  whole  career  in  America  was 
devoted  to  securing  all  the  gold  she  could  get.  The  value 
of  Alaskan  gold  fields  threatened  to  involve  us  in  se- 
rious boundary  disputes  with  Great  Britain. 

Thus  we  see  that  in  hundreds  of  ways  the  stream  of 
history  has  been  influenced  by  physical  environment,  and 
we  as  teachers  should  bind  history  and  geography  to- 
gether by  constant  reference  from  one  to  the  other  until 
they  become  a  unit  in  the  child's  mind. 


262  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 


DEVICES. 

1.  A  helpful  outline  for  the  study  of  a  battle  is  as 

follows  :  — 

(1)  When. 

(2)  Where. 

(3)  Leaders. 

(4)  Incidents. 

(5)  Results. 

This  will  include  the  essential  things  which  should 
be  known  about  a  battle,  and  unless  most  of  these  facts 
may  be  found,  the  battle  is  apt  to  be  of  very  little  im- 
portance. 

2.  Propose  such  questions  as  the  following,  and  allow 
pupils  to  discuss  them   freely,  giving  reasons  for  their 
belief,  and  later  it  may  be  left  to  the  vote  of  the  class  :  — 

(1)  Excepting  Washington,   who   was   the   greatest 
general  in  the  Revolutionary  War? 

(2)  Who  was  the  greatest  general  in  the  war  of  1812? 

(3)  Who   was   the   greatest   Union   General   in   the 
Civil  War? 

(4)  Who  was  the  greatest  Confederate  general? 

(5)  Which  was  the  greater  invention,  the  cotton  gin 
or  the  steamboat?     The  sewing-machine  or  the  mowing- 
machine?      The  telephone  or  the  telegraph? 

Numerous  questions  of  this  kind  may  be  proposed. 
Their  chief  value  lies  in  the  argument  given  in  support 
of  their  position.  Discourage  all  personal  prejudice  as 
far  as  possible. 

3.  Arrange  a  Hall  of  Fame.      Place  in  it  the  three 
greatest  English  discoverers  or  explorers,  the  three  great- 
est French,  the  three  greatest  Spanish.     Let  pupils  sup- 
port their  candidate  by  argument,  giving  reasons  why 
he  is  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  Hall  of  Fame.      Extend 


HISTORY  263 

to    other    things,     as     statesmen,     generals,     inventors, 
poets,  etc. 

4.  Let  pupils  choose  sides  and  debate  questions  per- 
taining to  history.     Avoid  partisanship.      Classes  have 
debated   the   tariff   question   in    schools   where   political 
parties  were  close,  without  offense  or  hard  feeling.     No 
one  can  claim  to  be  properly  educated  until  he  can  listen 
calmly  to  honest  opposition  to  his  opinions,   when  the 
opposition  is  properly  expressed. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  historic  quotations,  as,  "  Don't  give 
up  the  ship/'  "  Millions  for  defense,  but  not  a  cent  for 
tribute,"    "  We  have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours/' 
"  I'll    try,    sir,"    and    half   a   hundred    more,    and   have 
pupils   tell   when,   by   whom,   and   upon   what   occasion 
each  was  said. 

6.  Write    upon    the    board    cardinal    dates,    such    as 
1492,  1541,  1565,  1607,  1620,  etc.,  and  have  pupils  tell  why 
important  by  naming  a  great  event  of  that  year.     This 
is  an  excellent  way  to  impress  important  dates  on  the 
memory. 

7.  Study  the  great  American  inventions  and  the  lives 
of  the  inventors.    Trace  the  results,  social,  political,  and 
economical,  upon  the  lives  of  the  people.     Enumerate 
the  results  of  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin,  the  tele- 
graph, the  mowing-machine,  the  improved  printing  press, 
etc.     Suppose  all  electrical  power  should  suddenly  stop, 
what  would  be  the  result  on  the  world?     Suppose  rail- 
roads were  all  wiped  out  of  existence,  how  would   it 
change  the  life  of  the  people?     Suppose  all  mowing- 
machines  and  sewing-machines  were  suddenly  destroyed, 
what  would  the  results  be?     Nothing  is  better  to  lead 
to   an   understanding   of   the   importance   of   our   great 


264  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

modern  inventions  than  to  see  how  quickly  they  become 
inseparably  connected  with  our  civilization. 

8.  Maps  are  among  the  most  useful  devices  for  teach- 
ing history.     Pupils  should  have  an  outline  map  for  the 
Colonial  period,   another   for  the  Revolutionary  period, 
another  for  the  National  period,  and  a  special  one  for 
the  war  of  1812,  the  Mexican  War,  and  the  Civil  War; 
and   as   places   and   events   are   named,   locate   them   on 
the  map  by  number  or  some  similar  device.     On  their 
war  map  have  them  trace  each  campaign  and  locate  each 
battle  studied.     Then  supplement  this  war  map  by  maps 
of  each  of  the  great  battles  fought,  showing  the  move- 
ments of  the   opposing   forces.     In   no  other   way   can 
pupils  get  so  correct  a  view  of  the  movements  and  fasten 
in  mind  the  facts  which  should  be  known  as  by  tracing 
them  on  the  map.     Who  does  not  understand  General 
Scott's  invasion  of  Mexico  far  better  after  having  mapped 
his  campaign,  and  it  might  be  asked  who  ever  understood 
it  properly  until  he  did  trace  it  on  the  map  ?    These  maps 
may  be  made  artistic  as  well  as  interesting  and  valuable. 
The  pupils  should  be  able  at  any  time  to  sketch  briefly 
and  quickly  upon  the  blackboard  or  paper  any  campaign 
they  have  studied. 

9.  Give  attention  to  noted  days  in  history.    Upon  the 
anniversary  of  great  events  call  the  attention  of  the  pu- 
pils in  advance  to  the  coming  day,  and  have  them  to  be 
prepared  upon  the  event  and  its  significance.     It  may  be 
used  as  an  opening  exercise,  or  if  the  whole  history  pe- 
riod be  devoted  to  that  one  event  and  its  importance  im- 
pressed on  the  mind  of  the  class,  it  is  time  well  spent. 

10.  Frequently   assign   review  topics  miscellaneously 
and  have  a  written  recitation.     Pupils  should  be  trained 
to  write  accurately  and  readily  upon  the  board  or  on 


HISTORY  265 

paper,  using  any  topic  previously  studied.     Review  con- 
stantly. 

ii.  Teach. pupils  to  summarize  the  facts  learned.  Af- 
ter they  have  studied  the  different  colonies,  they  should 
summarize  the  kinds  of  colonial  governments. 

(1)  The   Royal  —  governed   by   a   representative   of 
the  king. 

(2)  The    Charter  —  governed    under    a    charter    or 
constitution  granted  by  the  king. 

(3)  Proprietary  —  governed  by  the  man  who  owned 
the  land.     In  the  same  way  after  they  have  studied  the 
French  and  Indian  War,  they  should  make  a  summary 
something  like  the  following: — 

a.  The  treaty  of  Paris. 

(a)  England  received  from  France  Canada,  ex- 
cept some  small  islands  near  Newfoundland, 
and  all  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi  except 
the  territory  of  New  Orleans. 

(&)  France  ceded  to  Spain  New  Orleans  and  all 
her  possessions  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

(c)  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  England  in  return 
for  Havana. 

b.  It    cost   the    colonies   eleven   million    dollars   and 
thirty  thousand  men. 

c.  It  engendered  strife  between  the  colonies  and  the 
mother  country. 

d.  It  bound  the  colonies  together. 

e.  It  trained  soldiers  for  the  Revolutionary  War. 

/.  It  gave  England  a  vast  territory  in  the  New  World, 
which,  added  to  what  she  already  had,  proved  too  great 
for  the  short-sighted  colonial  policy  of  George  III  and 
his  thick-headed  ministers. 

g.  During  the  war  England  allowed  the  colonies  a 


266  MANAGEMENT  AND  METHODS 

freedom  in  trade  which  she  later  tried  to  restrict,  but 
was  resisted  by  the  colonies. 

12.  Teach  pupils  to  associate  events  together  in  time. 
For  example,  take  the  year  1619. 

(1)  The  first  House  of  Burgesses  in  Virginia. 

(2)  The  importation  of  women  into  Virginia. 

(3)  The  introduction  of  slavery. 

13.  It  is  a  good  test  of  discrimination  to  call  upon 
pupils  to  name  — 

(1)  The  most  important  thing  in  the  lesson. 

(2)  The  least  important. 

(3)  The  saddest. 

(4)  The  bravest. 

(5)  The  most  treacherous,  etc. 

14.  Lead  pupils  to  see  how  life  is  modified  by  each 
onward  step  in  civilization.     The  degree  of  civilization 
is  indicated  by  the  way  the  people  partake  of  food.    No- 
tice, for  illustration,  the  Indians  seated  on  the  ground 
about  one  vessel  from  which  all  eat  promiscuously;  the 
Mexicans  with  rough  boards  for  tables  and  course  man- 
ners ;   the  people   of  the   most   civilized   countries   with 
convenient  and  ornamental  table-ware,  table-cloths,  nap- 
kins, etc.      Then  have  them  note  that  these  are  prod- 
ucts of  civilization,  and  have  them  point  out  others,  such 
as  the  treatment  of  prisoners,  freedom  of  thought  and 
action,  inventions,  etc. 

15.  Have  one  pupil  describe  some  historic  character 
or  some  battle  or  campaign  without  naming  it,  and  let 
the  others  give  the  name. 

1 6.  In   your    advanced    history    class    investigate    as 
fully  as  your  library  and  the  ability  of  your  class  will 


HISTORY  267 

permit,  according  to  the  longitudinal  view  of  history  de- 
scribed above,  such  subjects  as: — 

(1)  Our  foreign  relations. 

(2)  Our  territorial   growth. 

(3)  The  tariff. 

(4)  Banking. 

(5)  The  rise  and  fall  of  political  parties. 

(6)  American     inventions     and     the     economic 

change  wrought  by  them. 

(7)  Railroads  and  how  they  have  modified  life. 

These  and  a  dozen  others  will  form  interesting  sub- 
jects for  investigation.  They  may  overlap  often,  but  this 
will  do  no  harm.  Co  deeply  into  them,  getting  pupils 
to  think  and  investigate. 


XXVII.    CIVIL  GOVERNMENT 

IN  this  great  free  country  of  ours,  no  boy  or  girl 
should  leave  school  without  a  practical  knowledge  of  civil 
government.  If  the  State  is  justified  in  its  vast  ex- 
penditure of  money  to  perpetuate  itself,  it  is  justified 
in  demanding  that  the  children  in  its  schools  be  taught 
the  fundamental  principles  upon  which  the  government 
rests.  No  subject  creates  a  keener  interest  under  a  live 
teacher;  no  subject  is  more  potent  with  thought-develop- 
ing topics;  no  subject  is  more  closely  connected  with  the 
development  of  good  citizenship  in  the  coming  genera- 
tion; and  few  subjects  are  more  grossly  neglected  in 
many  of  our  schools.  Hundreds  of  pupils  are  leaving 
school  each  year,  many  of  them  graduates  of  our  com- 
mon schools,  boys  who  are  soon  to  be  voters,  when  they 
cannot  quote  the  preamble  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  tell  the  different  methods  by  which  a 
president  may  be  elected,  or  how  a  law  may  be  passed  by 
Congress.  These  are  sad  facts,  but  if  you  doubt  them, 
propose  such  questions  before  a  teachers'  institute  or  on 
a  teachers'  examination,  and  note  the  answers. 

Week  after  week  have  I  heard  teachers  in  institute 
grind  over  the  period  of  voyage  and  discovery,  interest- 
ing as  it  may  be,  and  yet  I  knew  full  well  many  had 
never  read  the  constitution  of  their  own  State  and  some 
had  never  studied  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
carefully  enough  to  be  acquainted  with  its  main  pro- 
visions. Often  do  you  see  courses  of  study  in  which 
provision  is~  made  for  a  minute  study  of  the  history  of 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  269 

Greece  and  Rome,  and  sometimes  England,  when  less 
than  a  month's  time  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  civil  gov- 
ernment, and  this  only  in  connection  with  the  general 
subject  of  United  States  history.  The  subject  of  civil 
government  is  in  my  judgment  so  important  and  yet  so 
neglected  in  many  of  our  schools  that  I  want  to  em- 
phasize its  study.  Take  these  points  home  to  you : — 

/.  To  neglect  this  study  is  unpardonable  in  American 
teachers. 

2.  If  you  do  not  interest  your  class  intensely  in  the 
subject  it  is  due  to  lack  of  enthusiasm  on  your  part  or 
ignorance  of  the  subject. 

j.  This  subject  should  not  be  put  off  until  the  pupils 
are  able  to  take  up  a  formal  text  in  the  high  school,  but 
many  information  questions  of  interest  and  importance 
may  be  discussed  in  the  grades. 

4.  The  subject  of  civil  government  should  then  be 
thoroughly  reviewed,  together  with  a  thorough  study  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  the  constitution 
of  the  State  in  the  advanced  grades  of  the  common  school 
or  in  the  high  school  course. 

There  is  no  serious  difficulty  in  the  teaching  of  civil 
government  except  lack  of  enthusiasm  and  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Pupils  are  easily  interested, 
parents  will  become  enthusiastic  about  it,  and  the  only 
caution  needed  by  the  teacher  is  to  use  tact  on  disputed 
points,  and  to  avoid  partisan  arguments.  The  teacher 
is  a  poor  diplomat  who  cannot  discuss  the  tariff,  free 
coinage,  State  rights,  our  foreign  policy,  or  internal  im- 
provements without  making  strife  or  ill  feeling. 

An  uncompromising  free-silver  man  taught  in  an  un- 
compromising gold  standard  community  during  the  cam- 


270  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

paign  of  1896.  Almost  every  patron  knew  what  his 
opinions  were,  and  yet  he  made  no  enemies  nor  stirred  up 
opposition.  He  did  not,  however,  argue  politics  at  the 
post-office  or  on  the  goods  box  in  front  of  the  store. 
There,  as  in  school,  he  granted  each  man  his  opinion, 
did  not  contradict,  and  did  not  try  to  make  converts  to 
his  opinions.  A  more  serious  matter  came  two  years 
later  when  he  stated  to  the  class  in  civil  government  that 
there  was  not  a  man  in  the  county  who  voted  for 
McKinley.  The  next  day  one  boy  reported,  "  Pa  said  that 
any  man  who  said  he  didn't  vote  for  McKinley  lied." 
The  teacher  did  not  get  ruffled,  but  a  few  days  later,  after 
a  careful  reading  and  discussion  of  the  Constitution,  they 
began  to  study  it  by  subject  and  outline.  Among  the 
topics  under  "The  President "  were  "Age/'  "Qualifi- 
cations," "  Term,"  "  How  elected,"  etc.  When  it  came 
to  the  manner  of  electing  the  president  the  process  was 
carefully  discussed.  To  the  mere  Constitutional  pro- 
vision many  points  of  actual  practice  were  added,  such 
as  nominating  the  persons  for  the  electoral  college,  plan 
of  voting,  counting  the  votes,  etc.  Some  days  later,  in 
reviewing  the  subject,  this  same  boy  reported  in  some- 
thing of  a  drawling  voice,  "  Pa  says  he  guesses  he  didn't 
vote  for  McKinley  after  all.  He's  been  readen  my  history 
ever'  night  for  a  week  or  more,  an'  he  says  there  is  a 
heap  of  things  there  he  didn't  know." 

What  you  want  is  for  your  pupils  and  patrons  to 
think.  They  may  or  may  not  think  as  you  do,  but 
thinking  will  beget  interest  in  the  subject. 

The  teacher  of  civil  government  must  read  and  be  in- 
terested in  what  is  going  on  in  the  world.  He  must  be 
interested  in  what  Congress  and  the  legislature  are  doing. 
This  interest  will  arouse  the  enthusiasm  of  pupils.  They 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  271 

should  read  current  events  —  not  necessarily  the  daily 
papers,  but  papers  which  give  a  clear,  unbiased  summary 
of  the  happenings  of  the  week  or  the  month.  There  are 
two  troubles  with  the  daily  paper  in  the  school-room :  It 
is  too  bulky,  and  it  is  partisan.  The  daily  paper,  too, 
seldom  gives  enough  of  both  sides  of  a  question  for  the 
best  use  in  the  school-room.  There  are,  however,  many 
good  reviews  now,  reasonably  non-partisan,  which  may 
be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  class  in  civil  government.  It 
is  well,  also,  that  pupils  learn  to  read  the  daily  papers 
under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher,  and  without  taking 
issue  he  may  teach  them  to  take  partisan  statements  with 
a  grain  of  allowance. 

Pupils  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and  the  constitution  of  their 
own  State  before  leaving  school.  There  are  many  ex- 
cellent texts  which  trace  the  origin  and  growth  of  our 
government.  Such  a  knowledge  is  essential  to  the  his- 
torian and  useful  to  all,  but  let  me  insist  that  the  growth 
and  origin  of  our  Constitution  should  not  overshadow 
the  Constitution  itself. 

My  experience  is  that  it  is  easy  to  interest  pupils  in 
the  workings  of  the  government  as  it  is,  but  hard  to  in- 
terest many  pupils  in  the  origin  of  the  government  first. 
The  trouble  is,  pupils  begin  to  study  about  the  origin  of 
the  township  and  county  before  they  have  any  conception 
of  the  township  and  county  as  it  is.  Early  in  the  school 
course  the  pupils  should  be  taught  these  divisions.  They 
should  know  the  offices,  and  be  able  to  name  the  officers 
and  to  tell  many  of  their  duties.  They  should  learn  in 
the  lower  grades  where  one  must  go  to  get  a  deed  re- 
corded, to  whom  they  must  pay  taxes,  etc.  Then,  too, 
they  must  know  something  of  the  Constitution,  how  a 


272  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

president  is  elected,  how  a  bill  becomes  a  law,  how  a 
bill  is  passed  over  the  president's  veto,  and  numerous 
similar  things,  before  they  can  be  interested  in  the  growth 
of  constitutional  liberty  in  Europe  and  America.  Per- 
haps, under  ideal  conditions,  in  schools  of  large  equip- 
ment and  libraries,  with  long  terms  and  well-trained 
teachers,  in  communities  of  wealth,  culture,  and  much 
reading,  it  might  be  that  pupils  could  begin  with  early 
civilization,  and  trace  step  by  step  up  to  our  present  effi- 
cient system  of  government.  Such  conditions  do  not 
exist  in  our  rural  and  village  schools,  and  it  will  be 
years  before  they  will  exist.  Our  teachers  are  not  yet 
trained  until  they  can  make  a  success  of  the  "  world- 
view  "  plan. 

A  teacher  of  much  prominence  told  me  he  never 
could  find  what  he  wanted  to  in  the  Constitution  because 
it  was  so  mixed  up.  Evidently  he  had  not  studied  it 
carefully.  Take  a  copy  of  the  Constitution,  and  note  the 
following  general  arrangement : — 

1.  Statement   of   the   purpose  —  The    Preamble. 

2.  The  Legislative  Department  —  Article  I. 

3.  The  Executive  Department  —  Article  II. 

4.  The  Judicial  Department  —  Article  III. 

5.  The  Relations  of  the  States  —  Article  IV. 

6.  The  Methods  of  Amendment  —  Article  V. 

7.  The  Supremacy  of  the  Constitution  — •  Article  VI. 

8.  The  Ratification  of  the  Constitution  —  Article  VII. 

9.  The  Amendments. 

(1)  The  Bill  of  Rights  —  Articles  1  to  X. 

(2)  Limiting  the  Judicial  Power  —  Article  XL 

(3)  Election  of  President  and  Vice-President  — 

Article  XII. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  273 

(4)  Results  of  the  Civil  War  — Articles  XIII. 
XIV,  XV. 

After  this  general  bird's-eye  view  and  a  careful  read- 
ing of  the  Constitution,  the  class  are  ready  to  study  it 
more  minutely  by  outline.  There  are  many  good  out- 
lines published,  which  will  be  helpful  to  the  teacher. 
He  must,  however,  adapt  them  to  his  school  and  his 
class.  The  pupils  should  not  onty  keep  the  outline  care- 
fully, but  should  be  able  to  give  the  main  features  of  it 
from  memory.  It  will  be  time  well  spent  to  have  the 
class  commit  these  topics.  Then,  too,  they  should  be 
able  to  quote  many  passages  from  the  Constitution. 

Study  your  State  constitution  in  school.  You  can 
doubtless  secure  copies  for  the  class  from  your  Secretary 
of  State.  There  may  be  slight  variations,  but  in  general 
you  will  find  the  following: — 

1.  Purpose,  or  Preamble. 

2.  Legislative  Department. 

3.  Executive  Department. 

4.  Judicial  Department. 

5.  Prohibitions  on  the  State. 

6.  General  Provisions. 

Study  it  thoroughly  and  make  an  exhaustive  outline 
of  it  for  your  own  use  and  a  shorter  one  for  class  use. 
Discuss  fully  with  the  class  such  topics  as  Right  of  Suf- 
frage, Constitutional  Offices  as  distinguished  from  Legis- 
lative Offices,  Prohibitions  on  the  Legislature,  Terms  of 
Office,  State  Debts  and  Obligations,  Educational  Pro- 
visions, and  numerous  others.  Such  discussions  open 
many  opportunities  for  the  teacher  to  impress  upon  the 
pupils  the  duties  of  good  citizenship.  This  can  be  done 
best  by  question  and  illustration  without  the  pupils  feel- 
ing that  they  are  being  lectured.  Is  voting  a  duty? 

18 


274  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

Is  it  the  duty  of  a  good  citizen  to  uphold  the  law  ?  Should 
a  man  inform  the  proper  authorities  when  he  knows  a 
law  is  being  violated? 

One  thing  the  teacher  should  impress,  and  that  is  the 
duty  of  tax-paying,  and  that  cheerfully.  It  is  not  an 
uncommon  thing  for  many  persons  to  look  upon  taxes 
as  robbery,  and  tax  collectors  as  oppressors.  Boys  soon 
to  be  voters  sometimes  ^ee  no  reason  for  paying  taxes. 
Show  them  that  for  the  protection  of  life  and  property 
as  well  as  for  the  general  welfare  taxes  are  necessary. 
Suppose  a  man  steals  your  horse,  burns  your  house,  or 
attacks  you  in  person ;  to  whom  must  you  appeal  ?  The 
sheriff,  the  constable,  or  the  police.  If  you  then  are 
given  this  protection,  should  you  help  to  pay  for  it? 
The  live  teacher  of  civil  government  may  make  his  in- 
fluence felt  for  good  in  the  community  for  years. 

A  teacher  of  civil  government  must  not  be  afraid  to 
ask  questions,  even  though  they  may  be  questions  which 
in  a  sense  are  unanswerable.  They  may  be  questions 
upon  which  statesmen  themselves  would  differ,  but  such 
questions  are  found  intensely  interesting,  and  a  discus- 
sion of  them  in  class  is  a  valuable  thing.  The  teacher 
can  readily  make  out  several  hundred  questions,  some 
bearing  directly  upon  the  Constitution  itself,  and  some 
upon  history  and  political  economy  in  its  connection  with 
civil  government,  and  others  upon  questions  of  right 
and  wrong  of  existing  conditions,  which  will  create  a 
great  deal  of  interest.  Below  are  given  a  few  questions 
out  of  a  long  list  which  have  been  discussed  in  my  civil 
government  class.  Many  of  them  were  not  settled,  and 
are  still  open  for  discussion  in  your  classes. 

i.  Who  chooses  the  United  States  Representatives? 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  275 

Must  Representatives  be  residents  of  the  districts  they 
represent  ? 

2.  State  definitely  what  qualities  a  citizen  of  your 
own  State  must  have  in  order  to  vote  for  a  Representa- 
tive in  Congress. 

3.  Would  it  be  possible  for  a  person  not  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  to  legally  vote  for  a  Congressman? 
Explain. 

4.  Could  a  woman  become  a  member  of  Congress? 

5.  Should  a  Representative  move  out  of  a  State  and 
become   a  bona-fide   citizen  of  another   State   after  his 
election,  could  he  serve  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected  ? 

6.  Suppose  there  is  a  vacancy  in  a  Congressional 
district  and  the  executive  of  the  State  should  refuse  to 
issue  writs  of  election,  could  he  be  compelled  to  do  so? 
How?      By  whom?      What  would  be  the  result  while 
the  matter  was  pending? 

7.  Suppose    from    sickness,   accident,   or   insanity   a 
Senator  were  permanently  disabled  to  be  in   Congress, 
who  would  have  the  right  to  declare  a  vacancy? 

8.  A  newspaper  once  declared  that  New  York  had 
three  Senators  while  Ohio  had  but  one.      Could  such  be 
possible  ?     How  ? 

9.  Why  is  Congress  not  allowed  to  name  the  place 
for  the  election  of  United  States  Senators? 

10.  Could  Congress  meet  anywhere  but  in  Washing- 
ton City?     How  could  this  be  done? 

11.  Is  a  member  of  Congress  a  State  or  a  United 
States  officer?      Who  pays  his  salary? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  "  for  any  speech  or  debate  in 
either  house  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place"? 


276  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

13.  Suppose  a  Congressman  makes  a  confession  of 
his  guilt  in  some  crime  while  speaking  in  Congress,  could 
this  be  used  in  convicting  him  of  the  crime  later? 

14.  Why  are  Senators  and  Representatives  forbidden 
to  hold  any  civil  office  created  or  whose  salary  has  been 
increased  during  the  time  for  which  he  has  been  elected? 

15.  Suppose  the  Senator  were  elected  for  six  years, 
and  during  the  first  two  years  of  his  office  some  position 
is  created  by  Congress ;  could  this  Senator  resign  and  be 
appointed  to  that  office  for  the  remaining  four  years? 

1 6.  Why  is  a  Senator  or  a  Representative  not  per- 
mitted to  serve  in  Congress  and  hold  an  office  under  the 
United  States  government  at  the  same  time?     Could  a 
member  of  Congress  hold  a  State  office  while  serving  in 
Congress  ? 

17.  What  is  the  only  question  Congress  may  decide 
without  submitting  it  to  the  president? 

18.  Could  a  Canadian  be  punished  for  counterfeiting 
our  money?      How? 

19.  Do  the  residents  of  the  District  of  Columbia  vote? 
Do  they  pay  taxes? 

20.  Could  a   State  grant  titles  of  nobility? 

21.  Could  the  king  of  England  send  the  president  of 
the  United  States  a  gold  watch  for  a  Christmas  present? 
Could  an  English  citizen  do  so? 

22.  Upon  what  conditions  could  a  State  begin  war 
without  the  consent  of  the  United  States  ? 

23.  Could  a  State  own  a  war  vessel  in  time  of  peace  ? 
In  time  of  war? 

24.  Could  a  postmaster  be  an  elector  for  president  or 
vice-president  ?      Why  ? 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  277 

25.  Did  you  ever  see  a  man  who  had  voted  for  a 
president  ? 

26.  Could  the  legislatures  of  the  several  States  enact 
laws  which  would  make  possible  the  election  of  the  presi- 
dent without  consulting  the  people? 

27.  Could  Alexander  Hamilton  have  been  president 
of  the  United  States? 

28.  Could  a  boy  born  in  China  while  his  parents  were 
missionaries  there  become  president? 

29.  Some  years  ago  a  son  was  born  to  our  Minister 
to  England  while  he  was  residing  in  London.      Would 
this  son  be  eligible  to  the  presidency? 

30.  Should  the  president  be  confined  to  his  bed  sev- 
eral weeks  with  typhoid  fever,  would  the  vice-president 
act  during  this  time? 

31.  Could  the  president  be  removed  from  office  for 
inefficiency  or  poor  judgment? 

32.  Could  a  United  States  judge  be  removed  from 
office  for  getting  drunk? 

33.  Why  is  Congress  forbidden  to  lower  the  salary 
of  a  judge? 

34.  Suppose  a  crime  is  committed  on  a  steamboat  on 
the  Mississippi  River,  where  would  the  criminal  be  tried  ? 

35.  What  are   some  of  the  practical   results  of  the 
constitutional    requirements   that   "  public   acts,    records, 
and   judicial  proceedings   shall  be  given   full   faith  and 
credit  in  every  other  State  "  ? 

36.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  clause,  "  Citizens  of 
each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  of  citizens 
in  the  several  States/' 

37.  A    State    Legislature    recently    forbade    citizens 
of  other  States  fishing  in  that  State,  and  permitted  cit- 


278  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

izens  of  that  State  to  fish.     Do  you  think  this  a  vio- 
lation of  the  above  clause? 

38.  Suppose  a  criminal  should  take  refuge  in  an  ad- 
joining State,  and  the  executive  of  that   State  refused 
to  deliver  up  the  accused  when  called  upon  by  the  execu- 
tive of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  could  he  be  com- 
pelled to  do  so?     How? 

39.  What  is  necessary  to  create  a  new   State   from 
the  territory  of  one  or  more  States?     Explain  the  cre- 
ation of  West  Virginia. 

40.  Would  Congress  have  the  power  to  sell  one  of 
our  Territories,  for  example,  New  Mexico? 

41.  Could  Congress  sell  one  of  our  States?     Why? 

42.  Could  the  president  send  troops  to  a  State  to  su- 
press  a  riot  unless  asked  to  do  so  by  the  governor  or 
the  legislature  of  that  State? 

43.  Could  the  president  send  troops  into  a  State  to 
protect  United  States  property  in  times  of  danger  with- 
out consulting  the  executive  or  legislature  of  the  State? 

44.  What  steps  are  necessary  to  amend  the  Consti- 
tution ? 

45.  What  one  clause  of  the  Constitution  could  not  be 
changed  without  the  consent  of  the  State  or  States  af- 
fected ? 

46.  What  one  clause  of  the  Constitution  declares  its 
supremacy  over  the  State  constitutions  or  laws  ? 

47.  Could  the  United  States  seize  my  house  or  farm 
for  public  use  ?    What  would  be  the  result  ?    How  would 
it  be  determined? 

48.  Show  how   it  would  be  legal  to  elect  both  the 
president  and  the  vice-president   from  the  same   State. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  279 

• 

49.  Suppose  a  vice-president  should  be  elected  and 

the  president  should  fail  to  be  elected  before  the  4th 
of  March.  Which  vice-president  would  serve,  the  old 
one  or  the  one  just  elected? 

50.  How  would  the  vote  of  a  State  be  determined,  as 
for  example  New  York  in  the  election  of  a  president  by 
the  House  of  Representatives? 

51.  Suppose  a  man  ineligible  on  account  of  age,  citi- 
zenship, or  some  other  cause,  to  be  elected  president,  and 
this  ineligibility  should  not  be  proved  until  after  he  had 
served  a  few  months.    What  would  be  the  result?    Who 
would  succeed  him?     Would  the  acts  which  he  had  ap- 
proved be  legal? 


XXVIII.     PHYSIOLOGY 

PHYSIOLOGY  is  one  of  the  newest  subjects  to  be  taught 
in  the  public  schools.  Like  scientific  temperance,  the 
legislators  who  made  physiology  a  legal  study,  were  look- 
ing to  the  practical  results  which  would  come  from  the 
general  study  of  this  subject  by  the  young  people.  Phys- 
iology, rightfully  taught,  has  for  its  object  at  least  three 
ends : — 

1.  A  practical  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  health  and 
how  to  develop  and  care  for  the  body. 

2.  The  general   culture  value  and  mental   discipline 
which  may  come,  in  a  degree,   from  the  study  of  any 
subject. 

3.  In  many  classes  it  is  nearly  the  only  scientific  study 
taught,  and  when  properly  taught  it  gives  the  mental  dis- 
cipline, the  power  of  observation,  and  the  training  of 
judgment,  which  are  peculiar  to  the  sciences. 

The  first  object  stated  above  should  never  be  lost 
sight  of  by  the  teacher.  Health  is  a  blessing  without 
which  all  other  blessings  are  in  vain.  To  understand  the 
development  and  care  of  the  body,  to  know  how  to  reg- 
ulate the  diet,  the  exercise,  and  to  know  the  uplift  which 
comes  from  personal  care  and  cleanliness, —  if  these 
things  are  accomplished,  the  teacher  has  done  well.  It 
used  to  be  thought  that  the  body  should  never  be  the 
subject  of  discussion,  and  that  ignorance  of  its  growth 
and  development  was  commendable.  The  growth  of  pop- 
ulation, the  crowded  cities,  and  the  sanitary  conditions 
made  necessary  from  social  and  civic  conditions,  have 

280 


PHYSIOLOGY  281 

changed  this.  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  is  essential 
to  the  highest  success  in  life  to  the  individual.  The  com- 
munity cannot  neglect  or  be  indifferent  to  anything  that 
lies  so  near  its  very  existence. 

Then  the  numerous  little  things  that  young  people 
need  to  know  can  nowhere  else  be  taught  so  well.  The 
care  of  the  teeth,  the  nails,  the  hair,  the  eyes,  the  ears, 
all  of  these  things  are  essential.  All  of  them  properly 
belong  under  physiology,  although  they  may  often  be 
grouped  under  the  general  term,  health  lessons. 

Great  reforms  will  finally  come  from  the  teaching 
of  the  laws  of  health  in  the  elementary  schools.  It  takes 
one  or  more  generations  to  discern  the  fruits  of  such 
teaching.  Already  the  average  of  human  life  is  being 
lengthened  in  civilized  countries,  and  a  better  understand- 
ing of  nature's  laws  and  a  more  careful  observation  of 
the  laws  of  health  will  yet  add  a  decade  to  the  average 
life  of  man.  The  effect  of  stimulants  and  narcotics, 
the  prevention  of  disease,  the  care  of  the  sick,  directions 
for  emergencies,  what  to  do  in  case  of  accidents,  all  these 
subjects  properly  belong  to  physiology.  The  teacher 
who  neglects  them  neglects  his  duty.  It  may  be  that 
the  text-book  does  not  mention  all  of  these,  but  the  teacher 
who  is  alive  to  his  opportunities  will  not  neglect  them. 

This  knowledge  may  be  made  a  discipline  and  will 
lead  to  culture  in  the  individual.  Mind  grows  by  its 
activity.  Useful  knowledge  is  knowledge  which  will  add 
to  the  comfort  or  convenience,  to  the  health  or  happiness 
of  the  individual.  This  knowledge  then  will  be  useful 
for  its  own  sake. 

The  value  of  all  scientific  study,  over  and  above  that 
which  comes  from  mathematics  or  language,  is  due  to 
the  observation  and  the  methods  by  which  such  knowl- 


282  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

edge  is  acquired.  It  brings,  or  should  bring,  the  pupil 
in  contact  with  nature.  In  the  study  of  physiology  the 
child  should  never  think  of  physiology  as  being  something 
away  off  yonder  or  in  some  book.  It  must  be  himself. 
He  is  the  object  of  study.  Physiology  thus  taught  will 
have  much  of  the  disciplinary  value  common  to  the  nat- 
ural sciences. 

To  teach  physiology  successfully  the  teacher  must 
have,  as  in  other  subjects,  a  broader  and  deeper  knowl- 
edge than  will  come  from  having  read  one  elementary 
author.  He  must  have  read  more  widely  and  more  deeply 
if  he  is  to  be  the  fountain  of  inspiration  to  the  class. 
He  must  also  have  seen  many  of  the  things  first-hand, 
and  must  be  able  to  show  these  same  things  to  his  class 
and  be  so  intensely  interested  in  them  that  the  class  will 
be  stimulated  by  his  interest.  He  must  be  able  to  illus- 
trate by  drawing,  modeling,  or  by  the  use  of  natural  ob- 
jects, many  things  described.  This  is  really  scientific 
study.  Collecting,  grouping,  accounting  for  facts  and 
phenomena,  is  scientific  teaching*. 

The  teacher  should  have  clearly  in  mind  the  subject 
he  is  going  to  present  to  the  class.  He  should  have 
clearly  in  mind  also  just  how  he  can  best  illustrate  and 
make  these  things  plain  to  his  class.  He  must  know  the 
text-book  he  is  to  teach,  and  must  have  studied  it  thor- 
oughly enough  so  that  he  knows  the  author's  point  of 
view.  He  should  have  in  his  mind  the  author's  outline 
of  the  subject,  and  upon  these -points  he  must  have  ad- 
ditional information,  and  must  know  where  the  pupils 
may  find  additional  information  suitable  to  their  own  use. 

Physiology  should  begin  with  well-planned  health 
lessons.  These  lessons  should  be  oral  and  adapted  to  the 
understanding  and  conditions  of  the  pupils.  These  may 


PHYSIOLOGY  283 

be  subjects  of  conversation  between  the  teacher  and  the 
pupils,  even  in  the  primary  grades.  They  should  be  in- 
formation lessons  largely.  The  teacher  must  plan  such 
lessons  systematically,  however,  if  the  above  results  are 
to  be  obtained. 

The  lesson  may  be  on  the  care  of  the  hands,  or  a 
number  of  lessons  may  be  devoted  to  this  topic.  The 
teacher,  in  a  conversational  way,  may  tell  the  pupils  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  skin ;  the  purpose  of  the  nails ; 
how  the  hands  should  be  cared  for ;  what  causes  the  hands 
to  chap ;  how  the  nails  should  be  trimmed  and  cared 
for;  the  effect  of  soap  and  why,  and  how  to  clean  the 
hands;  and  numerous  other  such  things. 

The  care  of  the  teeth  is  another  excellent  topic. 
Show  even  the  smaller  pupils  the  different  parts  of  the 
tooth,  and  tell  how  it  is  composed.  Explain  why  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  temporary  teeth  as  soon  as 
loose,  and  why  it  is  injurious  to  crack  nuts  with  the 
teeth.  Teach  them  how  the  teeth  should  be  cared  for ; 
why  a  metal  toothpick  may  be  injurious;  and  many  other 
things  which  will  be  of  great  use  to  them  personally  in 
after  life,  and  in  which  they  will  be  greatly  interested 
at  the  time. 

Teach  also  the  proper  way  of  caring  for  the  hair. 
Especially  children  should  be  taught  how  to  properly 
care  for  the  eyes.  If  such  teaching  did  nothing  more 
than  to  secure  better  lighted  school-rooms  for  the  next 
generation,  the  teachers  of  the  present  generation  would 
be  well  repaid.  Correct  breathing  and  carriage,  proper 
exercise,  may  also  form  subjects  of  conversation  with 
even  the  smallest  pupils. 

The  teacher  who  is  alert  will  have  no  trouble  in 
rinding  a  store  of  information  which  will  please  and 


284  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

profit  even  the  older  classes.  Here,  too,  the  teacher  may 
add  much  to  the  interest  and  profit  of  the  subject  if  he 
brings  into  the  study  illustrations  from  the  animal  world. 
The  teacher,  however,  in  these  grades,  as  well  as  in 
higher  grades,  should  discourage  experiments  of  what- 
ever kind  that  involve  cruelty  to  the  lower  animals  or 
insects.  In  the  university  or  medical  school,  no  doubt, 
the  ends  justify  the  means  of  such  experimentation  with 
animals,  even  the  taking  of  life  in  dangerous  operations, 
and  vivisection  may  be  justified  in  such  advanced  work. 
Many  small  but  interesting  and  instructive  experiments 
may  be  performed  which  will  in  no  way  endanger  or 
hurt  these  animals.  Many  simple  experiments  in  physics 
and  chemistry  will  also  be  of  much  profit  in  these  grades. 
A  good  microscope  will  be  of  almost  incalculable  value 
to  the  teacher  and  of  intense  interest  and  delight  to  the 
pupils. 

In  advanced  physiology  some  text-book  will,  no  doubt, 
be  the  basis  of  the  work.  There  are  a  number  of  good 
ones  on  the  market.  The  teacher  must  supplement  these 
texts  at  all  times.  The  first  preparation  of  the  teacher 
should  be  to  get  clearly  in  mind  the  author's  view  point 
in  writing  the  treatise.  He  is  then  better  prepared  to  pre- 
sent the  subject.  He  may  often  present  it  in  a  different 
order  from  that  given  by  the  author,  and  to  good 
advantage.  Scientifically,  the  bones  should  be  per- 
haps arrlong  the  last  subjects  treated.  Practically,  they 
are  the  easiest  taught.  If  the  teacher  understands  the 
author's  view  point,  he  may  take  up  the  subjects  in  the 
order  which  he  prefers. 

The  pupil  should  be  taught  to  master  the  text.  Many 
new  terms  will  be  met  for  the  first  time.  -  The  spelling 
and  meaning  of  those  terms  should  be  fastened  in  mind 


PHYSIOLOGY  285 

from  the  very  first.  Many  of  these  terms  will  be  self- 
explanatory  if  the  teacher  will  see  that  the  pupils  un- 
derstand the  root  meaning  of  the  word.  After  the  pupils 
have  mastered  the  text  of  the  author  it  is  well  for  them 
to  review  the  subject,  following  some  definite  outline 
which  will  designate  just  what  points  they  are  to  look 
for.  They  should  be  taught  to  make  outlines  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body,  and  so  thoroughly  master  these 
that  they  can  reproduce  them  from  memory.  The  out- 
line of  the  skeleton  is  easily  taught,  and  also  the  circu- 
latory system,  the  respiratory  system,  the  digestive 
system,  the  nervous  system,  and  the  organs  of  special 
sense.  All  may  be  taught  from  outline.  When  the 
pupils  leave  the  subject,  they  should  be  so  familiar  with 
the  outline  that  they  can  reproduce  it  from  memory. 
They  must  carry  away  numerous  facts.  There  is  no 
good  reason  or  common  sense  for  the  fad  which  has 
been,  to  a  large  extent,  prevalent,  that  the  pupils  should 
not  be  required  to  commit  anything  to  memory.  The 
only  thing  is,  that  it  should  be  intelligently  committed. 
They  should  understand  the  thought. 

In  the  advanced  grades  more  experimental  work  can 
be  done.  The  bones  of  animals  may  be  examined.  Al- 
most any  of  the  recent  physiologies  will  give  numerous 
simple  experiments  which  the  teacher  can  readily  per- 
form. The  heart  and  lungs  and  the  digestive  organs  of 
a  hog  or  chicken  may  be  examined.  The  teaching  that 
does  not  refer  to  the  objects  in  teaching  such  subjects 
can  hardly  be  called  good  teaching  of  physiology.  These 
objects  may  be  handled  so  daintily  as  not  to  disgust  the 
most  shrinking  or  the  most  fastidious  pupil.  Teachers 
should  take  into  consideration  the  timidity  of  many  pu- 
pils, in  such  experiments.  In  the  study  of  the  eye,  obtain 


286  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

the  eye  of  an  ox  from  a  butcher  and  examine  it  while 
frozen.  In  fact,  nearly  all  parts  of  the  body  should  be 
illustrated  by  these  parts  of  the  animal. 

In  the  advanced  grades,  also,  the  teacher  can  go  more 
deeply  into  the  laws  of  health,  and  the  ways  by  which 
health  may  be  maintained. 

Foods  and  their  comparative  worth  may  be  discussed, 
as  well  as  proper  methods  of  preparation.  See,  before 
all  things,  that  the  work  is  sensible  and  practical.  Pre- 
pare the  pupils  for  the  common  emergencies  of  life  by 
seeing  that  they  know  what  to  do  in  emergencies  and  how 
to  do  it,  as  in  case  of  a  broken  limb,  a  divided  artery,  or 
in  scalds,  burns,  bruises,  drowning,  or  poisoning  from 
any  of  the  common  poisons,  etc.  The  teacher  will  find 
that  the  pupils  not  only  delight  in  such  things,  but  it 
may  be  the  cause  of  saving  some  one's  life  in  the  future. 

If  physiology  is  properly  taught,  pupils  will  be  fas- 
cinated with  the  study,  and  from  it  will  come  some  of 
the  best  lessons  of  the  school  course. 


XXIX.     SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE 

WITHIN  the  last  few  years  this  subject  has  been 
added  to  the  branches  required  by  law  to  be  taught  in 
the  public  schools  of  many  States.  Such  laws  have  been 
urged  and  demanded  by  the  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union  and  numerous  other  religious  and  reform 
associations,  and  many  of  the  laws  have  been  framed  by 
these  ardent  temperance  advocates.  Originating  in  this 
way,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  many  extravagant  demands 
will  be  made  upon  teachers  and  schools.  Some  of  the 
laws  demand  that  a  certain  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of 
the  text-book  on  physiology  be  devoted  to  the  effects  of 
alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  organs  of  the  body.  Some 
demand  that  scientific  temperance  shall  be  taught  daily 
in  each  grade  of  the  public  school  —  this  would  imply 
from  the  first  year  of  the  kindergarten  through  the  uni- 
versity. Some  of  the  demands  are  ludicrous  in  the  ex- 
treme. 

These  laws  are  in  the  main  wholesome,  and  future 
years  will  show  some  good  results  from  painstaking,  con- 
scientious, scientific  temperance  teaching.  The  purpose 
of  the  subject  in  our  school,  if  we  consult  the  framers  of 
the  law,  is  less  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  real  effects 
of  narcotics  and  intoxicants  upon  the  organs  of  the  body 
than  to  instill  habits  of  temperance  or  of  total  abstinence 
from  these  things  in  the  lives  of  the  pupils.  If  the  last 
can  be  accomplished,  or  at  least  partially  accomplished, 
the  statutes  demanding  that  scientific  temperance  be 
taught  in  our  schools  will  justify  themselves  by  their 
results. 

287 


288  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

One  of  the  greatest  errors  in  teaching  scientific  tem- 
perance comes  from  exaggerating  the  evils  of  intem- 
perance. Boys  delight  in  opposition.  They  want  to 
show  that  things  often  accepted  as  true  are  not  true,  and 
if  a  statement  seems  to  therrTtoo  broad,  it  drives  them 
to  oppose  rather  than  to  accept  it.  Our  schools  are  full 
of  such  boys  to-day,  and  if  our  teaching  of  temperance 
appeals  to  their  minds,  it  must  keep  within  the  bounds 
of  reason. 

A  few  years  ago  I  examined  a  set  of  temperance 
charts  widely  sold  in  many  localities,  and  at  almost  fabu- 
lous prices,  and  was  astonished  at  the  claims  made.  It 
traced  all  the  diseases  to  which  man  is  heir  to  the  whisky 
habit.  As  the  agent  said,  "  Just  show  this  to  the  boys, 
and  it  will  make  them  afraid  to  ever  taste  the  stuff."  But 
there  was  the  mistake.  We  knew  men  suffering  with 
some  of  these  same  diseases,  men  who  had  never  more 
than  tasted  whisky,  and  whose  fathers  and  grandfathers 
had  been  equally  temperate.  We  knew  also  men  as 
rugged  looking  and  as  strong  as  the  country  afforded, 
who  were  full  of  whisky  one  third  of  the  time,  while 
their  fathers  and  grandfathers  had  been  little  or  no 
better ;  and  yet  you  could  find  no  trace  of  these  diseases. 
In  the  face  of  these  facts,  had  my  teacher  shown  me  this 
chart  when  I  was  a  boy,  and  made  the  extravagant  claims 
about  whisky,  I  should  have  settled  the  whole  matter  in 
my  own  mind  by  pronouncing  it  "  all  bosh."  Instead 
of  its  having  made  me  "  afraid  of  the  stuff,"  I  should 
have  been  tempted  to  taste  it  just  to  show  them. that  the 
statements  were  untrue. 

Keep  within  the  bounds  of  reason.  If  you  want  your 
teaching  of  temperance  to  be  effective,  keep  within  the 
bounds  of  reason  and  common  sense.  Teach  earnestly. 


SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE  289 

teach  by  precept  and  example,  but  do  not  overstate  your 
case  so  much  that  the  thinking,  questioning  pupils  begin 
to  doubt  your  premises.  Teach  them  that  alcohol  may 
cause  such  results,  and  that  it  often  does  cause  such  re- 
sults; but  be  willing  to  grant  that  the  same  or  similar 
results  and  consequences  may  be  caused  by  other  things. 
Make  your  case  so  strong  that  you  give  your  opponent 
the  benefit  of  the  doubt,  and  still  appeal  to  his  sense  of 
justice,  his  common  sense,  and  his  good  judgment.  No 
religious  precept  or  moral  principle  ever  found  lodgment 
in  a  thinking  mind  and  bore  fruit  in  a  quickened  con- 
science and  a  more  active  will,  unless  it  first  satisfied  that 
mind  that  this  precept  or  principle  was  a  higher  truth 
than  ever  before  existed  in  that  mind.  When  the  child 
learns  that  he  has  been  misled  and  that  the  claims  made 
are  untrue,  the  reaction  is  all  the  greater. 

Teach  indirectly.  More  good  may  be  done  often  by 
indirect  than  by  direct  teaching  in  the  matter  of  temper- 
ance. To  ask  the  pupil  to  write  five  good  reasons  for 
using  tobacco  or  alcohol,  and  to  write  these  reasons  out 
in  full,  may  create  more  thought  than  any  amount  of 
preaching  against  their  use.  Let  the  reader  sit  down  and 
write  out  five  reasons  why  a  boy  should  learn  to  use  alco- 
hol, and  see  if  it  does  not  require  more  thought  than  to 
enumerate  ten  reasons  why  he  should  not  use  it;  and 
in  seeking  the  reasons  for  its  use  the  conviction  forces 
itself  on  the  mind  that  its  use  is  an  injury  and  a  det- 
riment. The  same  is  true  of  all  fermented  and  distilled 
beverages. 

There  is  nothing  gained  by  personal  abuse.  The 
temperance  reformers  of  the  world  who  have  left  their 
impress  and  who  have  sought  and  saved  men,  have  not 

19 


290  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

been  those  who  indulge  in  personal  abuse.  You  cannot 
win  a  man  to  you  by  saying  unkind  things  about  him. 
You  must  appeal  to  his  intellect  and  win  his  sympathy 
to  get  his  co-operation.  You  can  win  boys  from  to- 
bacco by  kindness  and  firmness  a  dozen  times  when  abuse 
would  not. 

Cigarettes  are  dragging  down  more  boys  in  our  coun- 
try than  whisky.  One  of  the  first  symptoms  of  this  habit 
is  that  "  I  don't  care  "  attitude  about  school  and  home 
duties,  and  the  mental  sluggishness  which  accompanies 
it.  In  a  few  weeks'  time  in  arithmetic  and  algebra  the 
teacher  can  pick  out  most  of  the  cigarette  fiends.  They 
lack  the  power  of  clear,  acute  reasoning.  Nine  tenths 
of  them  are  lazy,  and  many  of  them  sullen  and  insolent 
They:  care  little  for  school,  and  less  for  their  father's  or 
mother's  words. 

Some  years  ago  a  teacher  suspicioned  before  the  end 
of  the  first  month  of  school  that  one  of  his  high  school 
boys  smoked  cigarettes.  Upon  inquiry  of  his  father 
about  the  boy's  progress,  the  teacher  said  the  boy  was 
not  doing  good  work,  and  stated  that  he  had  all  the  symp- 
toms of  the  cigarette  smoker.  His  father  was  indignant 
at  the  suggestion.  He  knew  his  boy  did  not  do  such  a 
thing.  The  teacher  watched  the  boy  faithfully  for  nearly 
six  months  before  he  caught  him  smoking.  He  could 
not  swear  to  the  contents  of  the  roll  of  paper  he  was 
smoking,  and  an  affidavit  would  probably  not  have  con- 
vinced the  father.  It  would  have  done  no  good  to  abuse 
the  boy.  A  number  of  good  frank  talks  helped  him.  The 
teacher  pointed  out  that  the  cigarettes  were  affecting  his 
will,  or  he  would  not  give  way  to  them.  It  was  a  battle 
royal.  A  little  opium-soaked  paper  enclosing  tobacco 
on  one  side,  a  boy  with  all  the  qualities  for  making  a 


SCIENTIFIC    TBMPBRANCB  291 

worthy  man  on  the  other.  To  continue  smoking,  to  sur- 
render to  a  little  cigarette  soldier,  meant  ignominious 
defeat  in  many  of  the  best  things  of  life.  Which  should 
be  victor,  the  boy  or  the.  cigarette?  He  and  he  alone 
should  decide. 

Ridicule,  if  done  indirectly,  is  often  helpful.  Humor 
and  whole-hearted  companionship  will  accomplish  much. 
Josh  Billings  has  been  accredited  with  the  definition  of  a 
cigar  as  "  a  little  roll  of  tobacco  with  a  fire  at  one  end 
and  a  fool  at  the  other."  Perhaps  he  would  have  defined 
a  cigarette  as  "  a  little  roll  of  paper  filled  with  tobacco 
with  a  little  less  fire  at  one  end  and  a  much  bigger  fool 
at  the  other."  The  teacher  who  has  the  personality  to 
say  such  things,  and  to  carry  the  majority  of  his  school 
with  him,  may  create  a  sentiment  among  the  boys  against 
these  habits,  and  this  is  worth  more  than  all  the  scientific 
facts  known  to  prevent  cigarette  smoking. 

One  boy  of  my  acquaintance,  not  a  bad  boy  —  you 
would  have  never  suspected  it  by  looking  at  him  — 
smoked  the  cigar  stubbs  he  found  in  the  street.  Like 
the  child  who  has  never  learned  to  question  the  cleanli- 
ness and  propriety  of  spitting  on  a  slate  to  erase  the 
pencil  marks,  this  boy  had  never  considered  that  these 
stubbs  were  unclean.  His  teacher  took  him  aside  and 
in  a  pleasant  way  spoke  of  the  bad  effects  of  smoking. 
She  did  not  speak  as  if  she  suspicioned  him  of  smoking. 
She  told  how  smoking  depraved  some  boys  until  they 
would  even  pick  up  cigar  stubbs  that  others  threw  away. 
She  then  pictured  the  sore  mouths  some  smokers  had, 
the  unclean  teeth,  the  bad  breath,  the  filthy  saliva,  the 
foul  mucous  secretions,  and  the  obnoxious  nasal  dis- 
charges which  often  find  an  outlet  through  the  mouth, 
until  the  boy  never  cared  to  take  hold  of  another  stubb 


292  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

with  his  hand,  much  less  to  place  it  in  his  mouth.  Better 
still,  it  proved  a  new  birth  to  the  boy.  From  that  day 
he  was  initiated  into  a  higher  life,  and  rose  to  a  higher 
plane,  the  plane  of  personal  cleanliness.  The  old  adage, 
"  Cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness,"  has  much  truth  in  it. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  many  older  persons  might  not. 
through  such  a  talk  or  some  other  means,  be  helped  to 
such  a  plane.  If  they  were,  there  would  be  cleaner  side- 
walks, public  parks,  and  street  cars. 

Suggestive  course  of  study  in  scientific  temperance. 
Since  the  passage  of  the  laws  in  many  of  the  States  re- 
quiring the  teaching  of  scientific  temperance  in  the 
schools,  there  have  appeared  a  number  of  books  upon 
the  subject.  Yet  many  teachers  find  it  hard  to  unify 
the  work  of  the  course.  There  is  such  a  demand  for 
help  on  this  that  we  feel  justified  in  giving  an  outline 
of  a  course  of  study  which  will  meet  the  requirements  of 
most  of  the  State  laws.  It  may  be  found  helpful  to  many 
teachers.  No  originality  is  claimed  for  this  more  than 
in  the  arrangement.  The  school  may  be  divided  into 
three  sections, —  the  primary  grades,  the  intermediate 
grades,  and  the  advanced  grades, —  and  the  work  in  these 
divisions  may  be  in  general  as  follows :  — 

The  Primary  Grades. 
i1  Food. 

i2  Why  we  need   food. 
22  Good  kinds  of  food. 
i3  Name   ten    kinds. 
23  Simple  explanations  of  why  some  kinds  are 

better  than  others. 
33  How  to  eat. 

i4  Slowly  —  why? 


SCIENTIFIC  TUMPIIRANCH  293 

24  Chewing,  etc. 
34  Lessons  in  table  manners. 
21  Drinks. 

i2  Why  we  need  them. 

22  Show  that  all  plants  and  animals  need  to  drink. 
32  Kinds  of  drinks. 
i3  The  best. 
23  Why  tea  and  coffee  are  not  good  for  most 

children. 
33  How  to  drink,  when  to  drink,  and  reasons 

for  the  same. 
31  Tobacco. 

i2  What  it  is. 

22  Explain  why  it  is  not  a  food. 

32  Explain  why  it  does  not  make  good  blood. 

42  The  poison  from  the  tobacco  goes  directly  into 

the  blood. 

52  It  makes  persons  very  sick  until  the  system  be- 
comes used  to  the  poison. 
41  Cigarettes. 

i2  Worse  than  tobacco   because  they  combine  the 

evil  effects  of  tobacco  and  other  narcotics. 
22  If  the  cigarette  papers  were  not  soaked  in  opi- 
ates, any  other  paper  would  answer  as  well. 
51  Alcoholic  drinks. 

i2  Explain  alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks. 
22  Name  some  of  the  most  common. 
32  What  the  poison  is  in  alcohol. 
42  Explain  how  the  system  retains  this  poison. 
52  Explain  alcoholic  appetite. 

62  This  appetite  grows  rapidly  until  the  system  must 
have  more  and  more  of  the  poison.  This  is 
especially  true  of  tobacco,  alcoholic  drinks, 
opium,  chloral,  and  cocaine. 


294  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

72  Explain  fermentation. 
i3  What  is  wine? 
i4  How  made. 

24  Compare  the  making  of  wine  and  vin- 
egar. 
23  What  is  beer? 

i4  How  made. 

24  Compare  with  wine  and  vinegar. 
82  Explain  distillation. 

i3  How  do  distilled  and   fermented  products 

differ. 

61  Care  of  the  body. 
i2  The  bones. 

i3  How  bones  grow. 

23  Some   causes    of    weak   bones. 

33  Effect  of  tight  shoes  on  the  bones  of  the 

foot. 

•  43  How  we  may  improve  our  form. 
53  Effects  of  tobacco  on  the  bones. 
63  Effects  of  alcohol  on  the  bones. 
22  The  muscles. 

i3  What  the  muscles  are. 

23  What  the  muscles  do. 

33  How  we  may  make  the  muscles  strong. 

43  How   men   train    for    racing   and   athletic 

sports. 

53  Effects  of  exercise  on  the  muscles. 
63  Effects  of  tobacco  on  the  muscles. 
73  Effects  of  alcohol  on  the  muscles. 
32  The  skin. 

i3  What  it  is. 
23  Its  use. 
33  The  layers. 


SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE  295 

43  The  purpose  of  the  pores. 

53  How  to  keep  the  skin  clean. 

63  Why   bathing   is   necessary. 

73  Directions  for  bathing. 

83  Care  of  the  hair. 

93  Care   of  the   nails. 
io3  Care  of  the  teeth. 

n3  What  a  bad  cold  is  and  how  to  avoid  it. 
I23  Effects  of  tobacco  on  the  skin. 
I33  Effects  of  alcohol  on  the  skin. 
I43  Effects  of  other  poisons  on  the  skin. 
42  The  blood. 

i3  What  it  is. 

2s  How  it  is  supplied. 

33  What  it  does   for  the  body. 

43  Why  it  should  be  pure. 

53  How  we  may  keep  it  pure. 

63  Effects  of  tobacco  on  the  blood. 

73  Effects  of  beer  and  alcohol  on  the  blood. 

83  Why  alcohol  causes  a  flushed  face. 

93  Why    alcohol     is     not    a    benefit     in     cold 

weather. 
52  Breathing. 

i3  How  to  breathe  properly. 

23  Effect  of  tight  clothing  on  breathing. 

33  Importance  of  pure  air. 

43  Why  close  rooms  are  unhealthy. 

53  Why  we  should  breathe  through  the  nose. 

63  Effect  of  tobacco  on  the  lungs. 

73  Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  lungs. 
62  The  brain  and  the  nerves. 

i3  Purpose   of   these   organs. 

23  How  protected. 


296  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

33  Effects -of  impure  blood  upon  them. 

43  The  worrying  habit  and  how  to  avoid  it. 

53  Pure  air  and  sunshine. 

63  Effects  of  tobacco  on  the  brain  and  nerves. 

73  Effects  of  alcohol  on  the  brain  and  nerves. 

83  Importance  of  sleep. 
72  Direction  for  care  of  the  eyes. 

71  Discuss  in  a  plain  simple  way  such  subjects  as  these 
with  the  pupils  : — 
i2  How  food  is  changed  in  the  body. 
22  How  and  why  we  should  chew  our  food. 
32  Why  we  should  not  use  strong  tea  and  coffee. 
42  Why  spices  and  candies  are  not  good  for  us. 
52  Why  ice  water  is  not  best  for  us. 
62  Why  do  men  use  tobacco? 
72  Effects  of  tobacco  and  alcohol  on  the  mind. 

Intermediate  Grades. 
i1  General  character  of  alcohol. 

I2  Definition  and  history. 

22  Fermentation  —  Illustrate. 

32  Physical  properties  of  alcohol. 

42  Distillation  —  Illustrate. 

52  Spirituous  liquors. 

62  Classification  of  liquors. 
21  Chemical  composition  of  alcohol. 
31  Use  of  alcohol. 

i2  In  the  arts. 

22  In  the  preparation  of  drugs. 

32  As  a  beverage. 
41  Action  of  alcohol  on  living  animal  tissue. 

i2  Alcohol  as  a  drink. 

22  Alcohol  as  a  food. 

32  Alcohol  as  a  heat  producer. 


SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE  297 

42  Effects  on  circulation. 

52  Effects  on  the  blood. 

62  Effects  on  the  nerves. 

72  Stages  in  alcoholic  effects. 

82  Make  a  summary  of  the  action  of  alcohol  on  the 

tissues. 
5a  Action  of  alcohol  on  the  mind. 

i2  The  inter-relation  of  the  nervous  system  and  the 

mind. 
22  The  faculties  of  the  mind  are  all  affected. 

I3  Perception  is  faulty. 

28  Cannot  think  clearly. 

38  Memory  is  less  clear. 

43  The  imagination  is  unrestrained. 

53  The  reasoning  powers  enfeebled. 

63  The  finer  sensibilities  blunted. 

73  Dulls  the  respect  for  self  and  others. 
32  Action  of  alcohol  on  the  will. 
42  The  cumulative  habit. 
52  Make  a  summary  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on 

the  mind. 
61  The   hereditary   effects   of   alcohol. 

i2  Dangers  of  transmitting  alcoholic  tendencies  to 

future  generations. 
22  Objections  to  a  moderate  use  of  alcohol.     Name 

five. 

71  Alcohol  in  its  relation  to  crime. 
i2  A   right  action  involves  — 

i3  A  knowledge  of  what  is  right. 

2s  A  feeling  of  obligation  to  perform. 

33  An  exercise  of  the  will  in  choosing  and 

doing. 
22  All  criminal  actions  lack  one  of  these  elements. 

20 


298  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

i3  The  person  either  does  not  know  what  is 

right,  or 
23  He  is  lacking  in  his  sense  of  duty  in  what 

he  knows  is  right,  or 
33  He  fails  in  self-control. 

32  These  are  the  negative  elements  of  crime.     The 
positive  elements  are : — 
i3  A  knowledge  that  the  act  is  wrong. 
23  A  desire  to  commit  evil. 
33  Willing  to  commit  the  crime. 
42  From  these  elements  of  criminal  actions  and  the 
effects  of  alcohol  on  the  mind  it  is  easy  to 
trace   a   direct   relation   between   alcohol   and 
crime. 

81  Other  stimulants  and  narcotics  with  their  influence  on 
body  and  mind. 
i2  Tea. 
22  Coffee. 
32  Tobacco. 
42  Opium. 
52  Chloral. 

Advanced  Grades. 
i1  Alcoholic  drinks. 
i2  Definition. 
22  Formation. 

i3  By   fermentation  —  Illustrate  -process. 
i4  Beer. 
24  Wine. 
34  Cider. 

2s  Distillation  —  Illustrate   process. 
i4  Whisky. 
24  Brandy. 
34  Rum. 


SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE  299 

4*  Gin. 
54  Alcohol. 
32  Composition. 

i3  Alcohol,  the  important  ingredient  of  each 
of  the  above  is  composed  of  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, and  oxygen. 

23  Carbonic  acids. 

33  Ethers,   waters,   etc. 
42  Properties. 

I3  Volatile. 

23  Inflammable. 

33  The  products  of  alcoholic  combustion  are 
carbonic  acid  and  water. 

43  Great  affinity  for  water. 
S2  Amount  of  alcohol  in  different  beverages. 

i3  Alcohol  —  90  to  98  per  cent. 

23  Whisky  —  45  to  58  per  cent. 

33  Brandy  —  42   to   51    per   cent. 

43  Rum,  about  49  per  cent. 

53  Gin,  about  42  per  cent. 

63  Wines,   15  to  23  per  cent. 
62  General  effects  on  the  system. 

i3  The  circulation  at  first  is  abnormally  in- 
creased and  is  later  correspondingly  de- 
creased. 

23  The  red  blood  corpuscles  are  •  contracted 
and  their  power  to  carry  oxygen  les- 
sened. 

33  Congestion  and  apoplexy  often  result. 

43  Produces  fatty  degeneration. 
i4  Explain. 

2*  Organs  thus  affected. 
i5  Heart. 


300  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

25  Liver. 
35  Kidneys. 
45  Nerves. 

53  Effect    on    brain.       Review     intermediate 
work. 

i4  Diminishes   mental   power. 
24  Causes  delirium  tremens. 
34  Sometimes  causes  insanity. 
63  Its  great  affinity  for  water  causes  alcohol 

to  absorb  this  liquid  from  the  tissues. 
73  It  is  not  a  food  and  enters  the  blood  un- 

assimilated. 

83  Moral  effects.     Review  intermediate  work 
i4  Creates  an  appetite  for  strong  drink. 
24  Leads  to  immoral  associations. 
34  Causes     poverty,     drunkenness,     and 
crime. 

Some  Review  Outlines. 
i1  Alcohol. 

T2  Properties. 

i3  Colorless. 

23  Pungent  taste. 

33  Peculiar  and  pleasing  odor. 

43  Inflammable    and    does    not    smoke   when 

burning. 

53  Will   not   freeze. 
63  Absorbs  water  and  oxygen. 
73  Mixes  readily  with  oils. 
22  Uses. 

i3  Used  by  jewelers  and  others  for  blow-pipe 

flame  for  welding. 
23  Dissolves   gums. 
33  Used  to  mix  with  oils. 


SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE  301 

4s  Used  in  spirit  levels  and  in  thermometers. 
53  Used  for  preserving  numerous  kinds  of  or- 
ganic matter  in  museums  and  laborato- 
ries. 

32  Effects  on  the  body. 
i3  How  shown. 

i4  By  experimental  investigation. 
24  By  observation. 
23  Effects  on  digestion. 
i4  Direct. 

i5  Increases  flow  of  gastric  juice. 
25  Coagulates  albumin. 
35  Precipitates  pepsin. 
45  Inflames  mucous  membrane. 
5*  Hinders   digestion. 
24  Indirect. 

i5  Affects  nervous  system  and  this 

reacts  upon  digestion. 
25  May  cause  thickening  of  walls 
of  the  stomach. 

33  Effects  on  temperature  of  the  body. 

I4  Paralyzes  nerves  controlling  capilla- 
ries ;  hence  the  blood  flows  to  the 
surface  and  gives  a  feeling  of 
warmth  to  the  body. 

24  This  will  cause  the  person  to  freeze 
more  quickly,  as  more  blood  is  on 
the  surface. 

34  Absorbs  oxygen  and  thus  reduces  the 

temperature. 
43  Effects  on  moisture  of  tissues  —  it  absorbs 

water  and  creates  thirst. 


302  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

53  Effects  on  circulation  and  on  the  blood. 

i4  Increases  the  heart  beats. 

24  Long  continued  use  causes  irregular 
heart  beats. 

34  Often  causes  fatty  degeneration  of  the 
heart. 

44  Coagulates  fibrin  in  the  blood-vessels. 

54  Dissolves  coloring  matter  of  corpus- 
cles. 

64  Causes   shrinking   of   red   corpuscles. 

74  May  cause  deposit  of  earthy  matter  in 
the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels,  hard- 
ening them. 
63  Effects  on  nerve  tissue. 

i4  Excites  nerve  centers. 

24  Affects   spinal   cord. 

34  Hardens  tissue  of  brain. 

44  Thickens   membranes   of   brain. 

54  Nerves  sometimes  paralyzed. 

64  Results. 

i5  Inability  to  control  movements. 
25  Diseases  of  the  nervous  system. 
35  Loss  of  mental  power. 
45  Leads  to  imbecility. 
55  Paralysis  and  death  may  result. 
73  Effects  on  the  liver. 

i4  Congestion. 

24  Enlarged   or   shriveled. 

34  May  produce  the  hob-nailed  liver. 

44  Unfits  the  liver  to  do  its  work. 
8s  Effects  upon  respiration. 

i4  Irritates  the  membranes  of  the  lung 
cells. 


SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE  303 

24  Causes  congestion. 

34  Prevents  the  proper  oxygenation   of 

the  blood. 
93  Effects  on  the  eyes. 

i4  Inflames  the   membranes. 

24  May   cause   structural   changes. 

34  Affects  the  optic  nerve. 

44  May  result  in  loss  of  sight. 
22  Summary. 

i3  Alcohol  is 

i4  A  product  of  decomposition. 

24  A  poison. 

34  A  narcotic. 

44  An  irritant. 
23  Alcohol  causes  — 

i4  Disease. 

24  Crime. 

34  Insanity. 

44  Death. 
33  Alcohol    frequently   does   the    following:— 

i4  Injures  the  blood. 

24  Wastes  the  vital  force. 

34  Lessens  the  temperature  of  the  body. 

44  Hardens  the  tissue  of  the  brain. 

54  Affects  the  liver. 

64  Draws  moisture  from  the  tissues. 
43  Alcohol  may  cause  — 

i4  Apoplexy. 

24  Heart  disease. 

34  Paralysis. 

44  Congestion  of  many  of  the  organs. 

54  Dyspepsia. 

64  Cancers  and  ulcers. 


304  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

53  Alcohol  is  not  a  proper  — 
i4  Food. 
2*  Drink. 

34  Seldom  a  proper  medicine. 
21  Effects  of  tobacco. 

i2  It  inflames  the  mucous  lining. 

22  It  irritates  the  stomach. 

32  It  injures  the  blood  corpuscles. 

42  It  disturbs  the  heart's  action. 

52  It  affects  the  sight  and  hearing. 

62  It  weakens  the  nervous  system. 

72  It  checks    bodily  and    mental    development    in 

young  persons. 

82  It  tends  toward  the  drug  habit. 
92  It  is  expensive. 
io2  It  is  a  filthy  habit. 

NOTES  AND  EXPERIMENTS. 

Fermentation. —  Alcohol  is  derived  from  the  decom- 
position of  sugar  by  fermentation.  This  is  a  chemical 
change.  Sugar  is  a  vegetable  product.  Starch  undergoes 
a  change  so  that  sugar  may  be  produced  from  it.  Sugar 
and  starch  may  be  viewed  together  as  the  source  of  alco- 
hol. Fermentation  is  that  well-known  process  of  souring. 
This  is  caused  by  the  growth  of  the  ferment,  a  minute 
organism,  which  feeds  on  the  sugar.  The  small  organ- 
isms are  found  floating  in  the  air.  They  quickly  attack 
fruit  juice,  especially  if  the  temperature  is  right,  and 
multiply  rapidly,  changing  the  sugar  into  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  alcohol.  The  gas  may  be  seen  forming  little 
bubbles,  which  is  usually  our  first  intimation  that  the 
substance  is  souring.  Cider,  beer,  and  wine  are  the  most 
common  fermented  drinks,  and  contain  only  limited  quan- 
tities of  alcohol. 


SCIENTIFIC  TEMPERANCE  305 

Distillation. —  Distillation  is  the  separation  of  two 
fluids  which  boil  at  different  temperatures.  Alcohol  boils 
at  173°  F.,  and  water  at  212°  F.  Hence  if  a  liquid  con- 
taining alcohol  be  heated  above  173°  F.,  the  alcohol  will 
escape  as  vapor.  This  vapor  may  be  condensed,  forming 
alcohol.  By  re-distillation  the  alcohol  may  be  obtained 
more  nearly  pure.  Pure  alcohol  is  a  deadly  poison. 

1.  Pour  a  little  alcohol  in  a  saucer,  touch  a  lighted 
match  to  it  and  note  the  flame,  the  heat,  etc. 

2.  Fill  a  teapot  with  hard  cider,  place  it  over  a  lamp, 
and  raise  it  to  173°  F.     Connect  the  spout  with  a  bottle 
by   a   rubber  tube.      Set  the  bottle   on   ice   or   in   cold 
water.    The  alcohol  will  escape  as  vapor  and  be  condensed 
in  the  bottle.     Re-distil,  and  it  will  be  found  to  burn, 
giving  off  much  heat  but  an  almost  invisible  flame. 

3.  Secure   a   fresh   brain    from   some   small   animal. 
Notice  how  soft  and  tender  it  is.     Place  it  in  a  solution 
of  alcohol,  and  notice  how  soon  it  becomes  hard.     The 
alcohol  cooks  it  and  absorbs  the  moisture  from  it. 

4.  From  the  stomach  of  a  calf  or  a  pig  secure  a  few 
drop's  of  the  gastric  juice.     Into  this  milky  fluid  pour 
a  few  drops  of  alcohol,  and  see  how  soon  there  will  be  a 
whit^  powdery  precipitate.     This  is  the  pepsin  of  the 
fluid,  and  without  this  digestion  cannot  be  perfect. 

5.  Place  some  soil  in  each  of  two  bottles,  and  then 
plant  seeds  in  each.     Into  one  bottle  pour  water  only, 
into  the  other  pour  water  mixed  with  a  little  alcohol. 
The  alcohol  prevents  the  growth  of  the  seeds. 

6.  Run  a  broom  straw  through  the  stem  of  a  well- 
used  pipe,  obtaining  some  of  the  dark  substance,  princi- 
pally nicotine.     Place  this  on  the  tongue  of  a  cat.     It  is 
a  deadly  poison. 


XXX.     NATURE  STUDY 

MUCH  has  been  written  of  late  on  nature  study.  The 
markets  have  been  flooded  with  books  on  this  subject, 
many  of  them  helpful  and  suggestive  to  the  teacher. 
Then,  too,  there  have  been  many  volumes  for  the  pupils. 
The  latter  are  useful  enough  if  they  arouse  the  pupil's 
curiosity  and  interest,  and  send  him  to  nature  for  the 
answer.  If,  however,  they  are  intended  to  take  the  place 
of  nature,  they  are  little  better  than  the  fairy  story. 

Nature  study  serves  three  purposes :  — 

i.  It  teaches  observation.  Too  many  children,  as 
well  as  adults,  having  eyes,  see  not,  and  having  ears, 
hear  not  the  beauties  and  wonders  of  nature  all  about 
them.  The  first  object  of  nature  study  is  the  cultivation 
of  keen  observation  in  the  child.  He  should  be  quick 
to  appreciate  the  beauties  and  anxious  to  investigate  the 
wonders  of  plant  and  animal  life,  and  open  to  the  inspiring 
uplift  of  scene  or  sound.  Too  many  pupils,  and  teachers, 
too,  have  never  seen  a  feather  —  that  is,  they  have  never 
even  noticed  that  the  common  feather  is  composed  of 
numerous  smaller  feathers,  each  with  a  small  quill  stick- 
ing into  the  larger  quill.  Thousands  of  boys  have  plowed 
corn  week  after  week  without  noticing  the  exquisite 
beauty  of  the  delicate  flower  on  the  corn  tassel.  Too 
many  of  our  boys  and  girls  are  growing  to  manhood  and 
womanhood  with  no  power  to  appreciate  the  sunset's 
glow,  the  dewdrop's  diamonds,  or  the  storm  cloud's  flash- 
ing eye  and  thunderous  voice.  They  cannot  see  or  appre- 


NATURE  STUDY  307 

ciate  the  landscape  scene  with  its  gorgeous  tints,  or  enjoy 
the  restful  quiet  of  the  forest  trees. 

Standing  in  a  high  school  building  in  a  cluster  of 
native  oaks  in  the  foothills  of  the  Ozarks,  an  inspiring 
landscape  with  forest  and  field  and  crystal  stream,  and 
over  all  the  balmy  blue  of  a  bright  June  day,  I  was  sur- 
prised to  find  that  few  teachers  out  of  a  hundred  had  ever 
noticed  the  beauty  about  them,  while  a  fourth  of  them 
had  been  educated  in  the  selfsame  building.  And  to 
think,  too,  that  they  were  to  be  the  source  of  inspiration, 
the  ones  above  all  others  who  were  to  interpret  the  beau- 
ties of  nature  to  the  minds  and  souls  of  some  thousands 
of  children  in  that  county  the  coming  year.  If  nature 
study  did  nothing  else  than  to  open  the  child's  mind  to 
the  beauty  of  nature  about  him,  it  would  be  enough  to 
justify  it  in  the  school  course. 

2.  Nature  study  does  not  cultivate  observation  only, 
but  the  other  powers  of  mind  as  well  If  properly  taught, 
no  subject  cultivates  inductive  reasoning  more  effectively. 
The  child  is  trained  to  observe  the  facts  and  phenomena, 
and  from  these  to  reach  the  reason  and  laws.  Nature 
study  should  pave  the  way  for  natural  science  study  later, 
and  the  inductive  study  of  the  sciences  is  admitted  one 
of  the  best  of  disciplinary  studies. 

j.  The  facts  of  nature  study  are  among  the  most  use- 
fid  knowledge  to  pupils  in  after  life.  The  knowledge  of 
plant  and  animal  life  learned  by  children  in  a  well-planned 
nature  study  course  are  sources  of  pleasure  and  profit. 
Aside  from  the  interest  in  the  study,  their  minds  will 
be  stored  with  useful  knowledge.  Nature  study  may 
cover  much  of  what  is  included  in  agriculture.  In  addi- 
tion to  learning  the  names  and  uses  of  plants,  children 


308  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

may  be  taught  much  of  the  proper  cultivation  of  plants. 
The  farmer  boy  will  be  interested  in  why  and  how  plow- 
ing corn  makes  it  grow.  He  will  understand  the  reason 
why  his  father  wants  him  to  plow  close  to  the  little  corn, 
and  to  get  farther  away  at  each  succeeding  plowing. 
He  will  understand  why  a  single  stalk  of  corn  standing 
alone  seldom  makes  a  perfect  seed  ear;  why  different 
kinds  of  corn  mix,  etc.  He  will  see  why  potatoes  and 
similar  plants  must  be  laid  by  early,  and  learn  numerous 
other  facts  of  a  practical  nature. 

Among  the  most  glaring  defects  of  nature  study  may 

be  named  the  following :  — 

'  \ 

1.  The  teacher  teaches  books  instead  of  nature.    The 
children  read  about  plants  and  animals  instead  of  study- 
ing plants  and  animals.     If  nature  study  is  to  be  from 
books  and  books  alone,  it  is  better  that  other  studies  take 
its  place.     The  great  value  of  the  subject  comes  from 
bringing  the  pupils  into  direct  contact  with  nature.    Les- 
sons on  the  cotton  plant  to  the  children  of  Minnesota  may 
be  all  right  as  an  information  lesson,  but  it  is  poor  nature 
study.     A  lesson  on  the  Greenland  whale  may  interest 
the   Mississippi  child,  but  it  cannot  be  properly  called 
nature  study. 

2.  The  lessons  in  nature  study  are  dry  and  formal. 
The  teacher  holds  to  some  set  form  for  fear  the  pupil  will 
ask  some  question,  or  become  interested  in  something 
not  in  the  lesson.    The  lesson  plan  is  reduced  to  a  skele- 
ton, and  the  pupils  are  in  a  formal  way  trying  to  fill  in 
a  few  blanks  with  a  little  meat.    The  skeleton  outline  is 
all  right  as  a  guide,  but  it  must  be  made  a  living  thing  to 
the  pupils. 


NATURE  STUDY  309 

j.  There  is  no  system  in  teaching  the  subject.  Just 
the  opposite  of  the  teacher  that  has  every  lesson  cut  and 
dried  and  knows  beforehand  just  how  each  pupil  must 
fill  in  each  blank  to  be  acceptable,  is  the  teacher  who 
makes  no  systematic  preparation  for  the  work.  He  takes 
up  without  any  planning  any  lesson  that  suggests  itself. 
He  goes  off  on  any  tangent  suggested  by  an  irrelevant 
question.  He  scatters  everywhere  and  gets  nowhere. 
He  talks  about  this  thing  to-day,  that  one  to-morrow, 
and  something,  else  next  week,  without  leaving  anything 
definite  in  either  case.  He  does  not  study  or  plan  what 
to  present,  or  how  to  present  it,  but  trusts  to  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  moment. 

4.  Nature  study  is  not  adapted  to  the  place  or  season. 
December  would  not  be  a  good  month  for  the  study  of 
the  housefly,  nor  would  June  be  a  good  month  for  the 
study  of  the  snowflake.  The  pine^  tree  would  not  be  a 
good  tree  for  study  in  Illinois,  nor  the  beech  in  Louisiana, 
because  they  are  not  common  enough. 

In  right  nature  study  the  teacher  selects  the  objects 
for  study  carefully.  These  will  be  suited  to  the  time  and 
place.  He  studies  these  not  only  at  first  hand,  but  seeks 
all  the  information  possible  from  other  sources.  He  is 
not  only  full  of  his  subject,  but  he  has  the  information 
well  organized.  He  is  full  of  interest  and  inspiration  also 
to  the  class.  He  secures  their  interest  and  incites  to 
careful  observation.  He  is  ready  to  seek  information 
with  the  class,  and  is  alive  to  anything  new. 

Note-books  are  kept,  in  which  the  pupils  make  a  rec- 
ord of  their  observations.  These  records  are  made  in- 
formally. Pupils  are  encouraged  to  make  observations 
at  home  and  report  them  to  the  class.  These  suggestions 


310  MANAGEMENT  AND   METHODS 

may  be  formulated  into  lessons  in  the  class,  and  the  habit 
of  careful  observation  and  note  taking  developed. 

In  most  lessons  there  should  be  specimens  enough 
for  each  member  of  the  class,  and  a  few  to  replace  any 
specimen  spoiled  during  the  work.  In  some  cases  a 
few  specimens  placed  where  each  can  examine  them 
will  suffice. 

In  the  lower  grades,  teach  children  to  observe  closely 
flowers  and  animals.  It  is  strange  how  many  pupils, 
though  raised  in  the  country,  cannot  tell  how  many  toes 
a  cat,  a  dog,  or  a  cow  has.  Larger  pupils  are  often  not 
sure  whether  a  cow's  horns  are  in  front  or  behind  her 
ears.  Many  farmer  boys  cannot  tell  how  the  common 
animals  get  up  or  lie  down. 

Insects,  too,  are  a  source  of  ever  renewed  interest  to 
the  person  who  observes  them.  Notice  the  common  house 
fly,  how  he  eats  and  how  cleanly  he  is.  Dust  some  flour 
on  him,  and  see  him  clean  his  body.  Notice  him  under 
a  magnifying  glass,  and  the  lower  part  of  each  leg  is  a 
brush.  Interest  children  in  the  study  of  all  kinds  of 
common  insects.  How  the  cricket  and  the  katydid  sing 
will  interest  them. 

Nothing  in  nature  has  the  power  to  interest  small 
children  so  quickly  or  so  intensely  as  the  activities  of 
animals  —  the  birds  as  they  fly  and  sing,  fishes  as  they 
swim,  and  animals  as  they  move  about.  Plants  and 
flowers,  however,  have  some  advantages  over  animals, 
as  they  can  be  studied  in  all  their  stages  of  development. 
They  are  also  more  easily  obtained  and  cared  for. 
Children  are  easily  interested  in  growing  seeds  and  un- 
folding flowers  if  they  have  a  part  ownership  in  them. 
This  is  a  quick  way  to  cultivate  a  sympathetic  interest 


NATURE  STUDY  311 

in  nature.  The  feeling  of  ownership  and  individual 
rights  is  a  wonderful  stimulus  to  children. 

In  addition  to  the  study  of  plants  and  animals,  water, 
air,  and  sunlight,  with  their  effect  upon  life,  may  be 
daily  observed  and  should  receive  special  attention. 

The  teacher  alive  to  the  importance  of  nature  study 
will  overcome  all  opposition  from  patrons.  He  may 
have  to  educate  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  certain  lines 
of  work,  but  he  will  do  it  successfully.  Nature  study 
may  be  new  in  the  school,  and  parents  and  others  may  not 
appreciate  it,  but  the  teacher  who  really  interests  the 
pupils  and  gives  them  something  worth  while,  will  soon 
have  the  hearty  support  of  all.  In  farming  communities 
he  may  give  more  attention  to  farm  products  —  corn, 
vegetables,  fruits,  etc.  In  manufacturing  towns  he  may 
emphasize  manufactured  articles,  as  flour,  paper,  iron, 
or  woolen  goods.  These  things  will  meet  with  the  ap- 
proval of  many  people  who  would  criticize  the  study  of 
birds  and  insects.  The  tactful  teacher  who  understands 
how  to  teach  and  who  appreciates  the  value  of  nature 
study,  will  not  ignore  so  powerful  a  force  as  the  pa- 
rent's approval.  He  will  carefully  consider  in  the  be- 
ginning what  things  will  be  most  likely  to  meet  with 
favor  or  disfavor  in  his  locality. 

A  living,  growing  interest  on  the  teacher's  part  will 
beget  enthusiasm  on  the  pupils'  part.  When  parents 
realize  that  the  children  are  interested,  and  that  in  ad- 
dition to  their  nature  work  they  are  doing  better  in 
reading,  writing,  spelling,  geography,  and  other  subjects, 
because  of  their  interest  in  this,  the  teacher  will  be  per- 
mitted to  exercise  his  judgment  in  the  selection  of 
material.  His  motives  will  not  be  questioned,  even  if  a 
few  entertain  a  notion  that  it  is  all  a  fad. 


312  MANAGEMENT   AND   METHODS 

Continue  the  nature  study,  then,  through  the  grades, 
selecting  types  which  can  be  studied  in  their  own  natural 
environment.  Your  work,  if  properly  done,  should, 
in  addition  to  its  intellectual  culture,  develop  the  child's 
higher  nature,  spiritual,  aesthetic,  and  ethical;  increase 
his  happiness  by  making  him  better  acquainted  with  his 
physical  environment ;  prepare  him  better  to  appreciate 
the  beautiful  literature  which  nature  has  inspired ;  in- 
crease his  love,  sympathy,  and  interest  in  all  living 
things;  and  lift  him  to  higher  love  of  nature  and  na- 
ture's Author/* 


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